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Challenges from China

The Untold Victims of China’s Trade Policies

Pages 151-166 | Published online: 25 Apr 2022
 

Notes

1 J.P. Singh, Sweet Talk: Paternalism and Collective Action in North-South Trade Relations (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2017); James Scott, "The future of agricultural trade governance in the World Trade Organization,” International Affairs 93, no. 5 (2017): 1167-1184, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix157.

2 Matthew Eagleton-Pierce, Symbolic Power in the World Trade Organization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

3 Matias E Margulis, "Whistling to the Same Tune? The Contest over Future WTO Agricultural Subsidies,” in Agriculture Subsidies and the WTO, ed. A. Govinda Reddy (Hyderabad: Amicus Books, 2010), 34-44.

4 Jennifer Clapp, "WTO Agriculture Negotiations: Implications for the Global South," Third World Quarterly 27, no. 4 (2006): 563-577, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4017724; Matias E. Margulis. "Trading Out of the Global Food Crisis? The World Trade Organization and the Geopolitics of Food Security," Geopolitics 19, no. 2 (2014): 322-350, https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2014.920233.

5 Kristen Hopewell, "US-China Conflict in Global Trade Governance: The New Politics of Agricultural Subsidies at the WTO," Review of International Political Economy 26, no. 2 (2019): 207-231, https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2018.1560352.

6 OECD, Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation, 2017.

7 FAO, The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2018: Agricultural Trade, Climate Change and Food Security, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 2018, https://www.fao.org/3/I9542EN/i9542en.pdf; Hui Jiang, "China: Evolving Demand in the World’s Largest Agricultural Import Market," USDA International Agricultural Trade Report, 2020, https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/china-evolving-demand-world-s-largest-agricultural-import-market.

8 Fred Gale, "Growth and Evolution in China’s Agricultural Support Policies," USDA Economic Research Service Report #153, August 2013, https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=45118; Carlos Mera,"China’s selling may keep food prices low this year," Financial Times, Beyond BRICS Blog, January 31, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/453b1857-8232-3995-92e2-b090a0668faa; Rabobank, “Rabobank: Global Food Prices Set to Stay Low in 2017,” Global Outlook Report, November 23, 2016, https://www.rabobank.com/en/press/search/2016/20161123-rabobank-global-food-prices-set-to-stay-low-in-2017.html.

9 World Bank data, https://data.worldbank.org/.

10 Mark W. Frazier, "Narrowing the Gap: Rural-Urban Inequality in China," World Politics Review, September 24, 2013, https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/13241/narrowing-the-gap-rural-urban-inequality-in-china.

11 OECD, Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation, 2017.

12 Daojiong Zha and Hongzhou Zhang, "Food in China's international relations," Pacific Review 26, no. 5 (2013): 455-479, https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2013.842308.

13 ICTSD, "National Agricultural Policies, Trade, and the New Multilateral Agenda," International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, 2015.

14 OECD, Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation.

15 Fred Gale, "Growth and Evolution in China’s Agricultural Support Policies," USDA Economic Research Service Report #153, 2013, https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=45118.

16 Mindi Schneider, "Dragon Head Enterprises and the State of Agribusiness in China," Journal of Agrarian Change 17, no. 1 (2017): 3-21, https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12151; Mark Godfrey, "China’s ‘dragon head’ seafood giants will drive next generation M&A," Seafood Source, July 21, 2014, https://www.seafoodsource.com/features/china-s-dragon-head-seafood-giants-will-drive-next-generation-m-a.

17 Author interview with WTO negotiator, Geneva, July 2016.

19 Kristen Hopewell, "US-China Conflict in Global Trade Governance: The New Politics of Agricultural Subsidies at the WTO," Review of International Political Economy 26, no. 2 (2019): 207-231, https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2018.1560352.

20 Oxfam, "Rigged Rules and Double Standards: Trade, Globalization and the Fight Against Poverty," Make Trade Fair Campaign, 2002.

21 J.P. Singh, "The Land of Milk and Cotton: How US Protectionism Distorts Global Trade," Foreign Affairs Snapshot, October 23, 2014, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/africa/2014-10-23/land-milk-and-cotton.

22 Calculated by author based on data from the International Cotton Advisory Council.

23 Matthew Eagleton-Pierce, 2011, "The Competing Kings of Cotton: (Re)framing the WTO African Cotton Initiative," New Political Economy 17, no. 3 (2011): 313-337, https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2011.577207.

24 Emiko Terazono and Gregory Meyer, "Cotton farmers hit hard as prices drop to lowest since 2009," Financial Times, December 9, 2014, https://www.ft.com/content/e44b095c-7a19-11e4-9b34-00144feabdc0.

25 “Cotton Farmers,” Fairtrade Foundation, https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/farmers-and-workers/cotton/.

26 Ada Sneyd, Cotton (Cambridge: Polity, 2016).

27 Amy A Quark, Global Rivalries: Standards Wars and the Transnational Cotton Trade (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013); USDA, "Cotton Policy in China," Report from the Economic Research Service, CWS-15c-01, March 2015, https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/outlooks/36244/52550_cws-15c-01.pdf?v=7181.

28 ICAC, "Cotton Report," Presentation by Jose Sette, ICAC Executive Director, WTO 6th Dedicated Discussion of the Relevant Trade-Related Developments on Cotton, Geneva, November 23, 2016.

29 USDA, "Cotton Policy in China."

30 ICTSD, "Cotton: Trends in Global Production, Trade and Policy," Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD), 2013.

31 World Bank data, https://data.worldbank.org/.

32 John Sudworth, "China's 'tainted' cotton," BBC, December 2020, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/extra/nz0g306v8c/china-tainted-cotton.

33 Lucy Hornby, " China’s high agricultural stockpiles complicate reform efforts," Financial Times, February 3, 2015, 20, https://www.ft.com/content/d71d3438-abad-11e4-8070-00144feab7de; Alexander Kriebitz and Raphael Max, "The Xinjiang Case and Its Implications from a Business Ethics Perspective," Human Rights Review 21, no. 3 (2020): 243-265, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12142-020-00591-0.

34 Eva Dou, "Sanctions on China’s top cotton supplier weave a tangled web for fashion brands,” Washington Post, August 22, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/sanctions-china-cotton-xinjiang-uighurs-fashion/2020/08/20/188ec374-dd48-11ea-b4f1-25b762cdbbf4_story.html.

35 Rashid U. Sumaila, Vicky Lam, Frédéric Le Manach, Wilf Swartz, and Daniel Pauly, "Global Fisheries Subsidies," Brussels: European Parliament Directorate-General for Internal Policies, 2013, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/IPOL-PECH_NT(2013)513978.

36 FAO, The State of the World's Fisheries and Aquaculture. UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016, https://www.fao.org/3/i5555e/i5555e.pdf.

37 Douglas J. McCauley, Caroline Jablonicky, Edward H. Allison, Christopher D. Golden, Francis H. Joyce, Juan Mayorga, and David Kroodsma, "Wealthy countries dominate industrial fishing," Science Advances 4, no. 8 (2018), https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aau2161.

38 Enric Sala, Juan Mayorga, Christopher Costello, David Kroodsma, Maria L. D. Palomares, Daniel Pauly, U. Rashid Sumaila, and Dirk Zeller, "The economics of fishing the high seas," Science Advances 4, no. 6 (2018), https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aat2504.

39 Alice Tipping, "Tackling Fisheries Subsidies at the WTO: What's in it for LDCs?" Bridges Africa 6, no. 8 (2017).

40 FAO, The State of the World's Fisheries and Aquaculture.

41 Tipping, "Tackling Fisheries Subsidies at the WTO: What's in it for LDCs?"; Stephen Fevrier and Manleen Dugal, "The WTO's role in fisheries subsidies and its implications for Africa," Bridges Africa 5, no. 10 (2016).

42 UNEP, Fisheries Subsidies, Sustainable Development and the WTO, New York: UNEP, 2011, https://www.unep.org/resources/report/fisheries-subsidies-sustainable-development-and-wto.

43 FAO, The State of the World's Fisheries and Aquaculture.

44 Rashid U. Sumaila, Naazia Ebrahim, Anna Schuhbauer, Daniel Skerritt, Yang Li, Hong Sik Kim, Tabitha Grace Mallory, Vicky W. L. Lam, and Daniel Pauly, "Updated estimates and analysis of global fisheries subsidies," Marine Policy 109 (2019): 103695, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103695.

45 Hongzhou Zhang and Fengshi Wu, "China's Marine Fishery and Global Ocean Governance," Global Policy 8, no. 2 (2017): 216-226, https://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/articles/global-public-goods-and-bads/chinas-marine-fishery-and-global-ocean-governance.

46 David A. Kroodsma, Juan Mayorga, Timothy Hochberg, Nathan A. Miller, Kristina Boerder, Francesco Ferretti, Alex Wilson, Bjorn Bergman, Timothy D. White, Barbara A. Block, Paul Woods, Brian Sullivan, Christopher Costello, and Boris Worm, "Tracking the global footprint of fisheries," Science 359, no. 6378 (2018), https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aao5646: 904-908.

47 Miren Gutiérrez, Alfonso Daniels, Guy Jobbins, Guillermo Gutiérrez Almazor, and César Montenegro, China's Distant-Water Fishing Fleet: Scale, Impact and Governance (London: Overseas Development Institute, 2020), https://odi.org/en/publications/chinas-distant-water-fishing-fleet-scale-impact-and-governance/; Greenpeace, "Give a Man a Fish—Five Facts on China’s Distant Water Fishing Subsidies," Greenpeace East Asia Briefing, August 8, 2016.

48 Enric Sala, Juan Mayorga, Christopher Costello, David Kroodsma, Maria L. D. Palomares, Daniel Pauly, U. Rashid Sumaila, and Dirk Zeller, "The economics of fishing the high seas," Science Advances 4, no. 6 (2018), https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aat2504.

49 Gutiérrez et. al, China's Distant-Water Fishing Fleet: Scale, Impact and Governance.

50 Andrew Jacobs, "China's Appetite Pushes Fish Stocks to Brink," New York Times, April 30, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/30/world/asia/chinas-appetite-pushes-fisheries-to-the-brink.html.

51 Greenpeace, "Africa's Fisheries Paradise at a Crossroads: Investigating Chinese Companies' Illegal Fishing Practices in West Africa," Greenpeace East Asia and Greenpeace Africa, 2015, https://www.chinafile.com/library/reports/africas-fisheries-paradise-crossroads.

52 Hongzhou Zhang and Fengshi Wu, "China's Marine Fishery and Global Ocean Governance," Global Policy 8, no. 2 (2017): 216-226, https://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/articles/global-public-goods-and-bads/chinas-marine-fishery-and-global-ocean-governance.

53 Hongzhou Zhang and Sam Bateman, "Fishing Militia, the Securitization of Fishery and the South China Sea Dispute," Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs 39, no. 2 (2017): 288-314, https://www.jstor.org/stable/44683771.

54 EU, "Study on the subsidies to the fisheries, aquaculture, and marketing and processing subsectors in major fishing nations beyond the EU," Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, MARE/2011/01 Lot 2, Brussels, 2016, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/45f78bf8-d24b-11e6-ad7c-01aa75ed71a1; Mark Godfrey, "China rushing to build global fishing bases before capping its fleet size," Seafood Source, January 17, 2018, https://www.seafoodsource.com/features/china-rushing-to-build-global-fishing-bases-before-capping-its-fleet-size.

55 Bonnie Glaser, "Time for Collective Pushback against China’s Economic Coercion," Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2021, https://www.csis.org/analysis/time-collective-pushback-against-chinas-economic-coercion.

56 Author interview with WTO negotiator, Geneva, July 2017.

57 Kristen Hopewell, “Beyond U.S.-China Rivalry: Rule Breaking, Economic Coercion, and the Weaponization of Trade,” AJIL Unbound 116 (2022): 58-63, https://doi.org/10.1017/aju.2022.3.

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