The place of Somali in the resistance of Ethiopia against the Italian colonial forces in the Ogaden, 1915 to 1941

Abstract The study investigated the role of Somalis in Ethiopia’s struggle against Italian colonial forces in the Ogaden region from 1915 to 1941, which has been overlooked in existing literature. The research was conducted using an exploratory design and qualitative data obtained from primary records, oral evidence, and secondary sources. The relationship between Ethiopia and Italian forces in the Ogaden frontiers from 1915 to 1935 was characterized by tensions due to Italian incursions and Ethiopian resistance. The Somali people, who considered the Italians as threats to their socio-economic wellbeing, resisted the invasion of their territories in the Ogaden from 1915 onwards. They played a crucial role in the Ethiopian resistance by providing information, logistics, and combatants. Notable figures such as Omer Semeter, Ali Nur, Erzi Jama, Sultan Bede, Hussein Elmie, Ahmed Hashi, and Mahamud Ebrahim organized the Somalis in the resistance against the Italian colonial forces. Although there are pieces of literature related to Ethiopia’s resistance against Italian colonial forces, most of them are geographically confined to the north and temporally limited from 1935 to 1941. Moreover, existing literature on Ethiopian resistance in the Ogaden mainly focuses on defensive wars headed by higher nobles. This study reveals historical realities that have been made invisible in historical literature by highlighting the contributions of local peoples of the Ogaden who participated in the resistance against Italian invasion.


PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Globally, various peoples organized resistance movements against foreign invasion.The essay focuses on the Ethiopian Somalis' fight in the Ogaden against the Italian invasion that occurred there between 1915 and 1941.Qualitative data from original records, oral testimony, and secondary sources were used in the study.According to the report, tensions arose between Ethiopian forces and Italian forces in the Ogaden boundaries between 1915 and 1935 as a result of Italian intrusions and Ethiopian resistance.From 1915 onward, the Somali people resisted the Italian invasion of their holdings in the Ogaden because they saw the Italians as dangers to their socioeconomic well-being.By contributing fighters, resources, and intelligence to the Ethiopian resistance, they were vital in its success.Furthermore, most of the literature that has been written about Ethiopian resistance in the Ogaden concentrates on defensive wars led by higher nobility.This study highlights the contributions of Ogaden locals who took part in the struggle against Italian invasion, revealing historical realities hidden in history writing.colonial forces.Although there are pieces of literature related to Ethiopia's resistance against Italian colonial forces, most of them are geographically confined to the north and temporally limited from 1935 to 1941.Moreover, existing literature on Ethiopian resistance in the Ogaden mainly focuses on defensive wars headed by higher nobles.This study reveals historical realities that have been made invisible in historical literature by highlighting the contributions of local peoples of the Ogaden who participated in the resistance against Italian invasion.

Background to Italian Colonial Expansion in Eastern Ethiopia
Italy occupied the whole territories of Ethiopia, north of the Mereb River in 1890 and declared it as its colony of Eritrea (Zewde, 2002, p. 71).Italian troops used Eritrea to mobilize forces to control the whole of Ethiopia from 1891 onwards.Nevertheless, Ethiopia's military victory against Italy in the battle of Adwa in 1896 silenced Italy's colonial aspirations temporarily (Berhe, 2003, p. 88 and;  Zewde, 2002, pp.76-77).Following its defeat, Italy signed an agreement with Ethiopia in 1897 that delimited the boundary with its Somaliland colony (Oba, 2013, p. 48).According to this agreement, the border between Ethiopia and the Italian colony of Somaliland was delimited to be 180 miles from the coast of the Indian Ocean.Another boundary delimitation agreement that approved the 1897 treaty between Ethiopia and the Italian colony was concluded in 1908.These agreements made the Ogaden region an Ethiopian territory (Eshete, 1994, p. 79; Mockler, 2003:31&Oba,  2013:157).However, the Italian forces defied these agreements and incessantly invaded the area (Eshete, 1994:74 & Zewde, 2002, p. 114).(see Figure 1 for map of Ogaden)

The Response of the Somali to the Italian Expansion on the border until 1915
Although the Italian colonial forces based in Somaliland had persistently invaded the Ogaden region from 1908 to 1915, the Somalis did not join the central state forces to defend the region (Eshete, 1994, pp.71,76).This was due to hostilities between the two groups that resulted from tax collection excursions until the coming of Lej Iyasu (r.1913-1916) to power in the country (Eshete,  1994, pp.71,76 & Oba, 2013, pp.36,74).Tax collection expeditions were occasionally punitive, especially for those who refused to pay taxes.The punishment for such individuals was the raiding of their livestock, which was the source of their livelihood as a pastoral society.Those who accompanied these expeditions did not have good relations with the community.These factors led to the Somali resistance against the representatives of the central state (Eshete, 1994, p. 76).These administrative abuses were indisputably the causes for peasant rebellions everywhere in Ethiopia (Braukämper, 2011, p. 165 and; Zewde, 2002, p.2016).
The mistreatment that Somalis faced from the central state authorities exposed them to Italian subversive strategies until the reconciliation between the two in 1915 during the rule of Lij Iyasu (Eshete, 1994, p. 71, 76).In a discussion with clan leaders held at Jigjiga town in 1915, Iyasu assured that the administration of the region would be improved.He also told them that local autonomy would be ensured.Accordingly, he appointed Abdulahi Sadik, a fellow of the community, as governor of the area.The traditional rule of the community was also recognized.These measures pacified the relationship between the state and the Somalis (Eshete, 1994, p. 77).

The Somali resistance against the Italians in Ethiopia until 1922
The fascist colonial government bodies aimed to establish colonial rule in Ethiopia through coordination.They exchanged written information regarding their expansion and the Ethiopian forces' responses, including the Somalis in the Ogaden, since 1916.They reported on the Ethiopian peoples' resistance and how they responded to suppress it.However, their records indicate that the Italian colonial forces tried to undermine the resistance of the people of Ethiopia, although they did not deny it.Instead, local sources and British archives acknowledge Ethiopian resistance.This suggests that there has been disputes on colonial expansion and the resistance among observers.Therefore, this study used various sources to obtain objective findings on the Italian invasion and the role of Somalis in Ethiopia's struggle to defend the area by cross-referencing them with each other.
The Somali pastoralists in the Ogaden region resisted the Italian invasion of Ethiopia's borders.The Italians immigration of the Hawiye and Majeertin clans of their colony of Somaliland in the Ogaden was one of the causes to the resistance of the Somali peoples of Ethiopia.The relocating of clans of somaliland in the Ogaden was due to the availability of water wells in the area (Mockler,  2003, p. 40). 1 The secondary litrature addresses the causes that initiates the African resistance against the colonial powers on their respective territories.Kastfelt (1976),for instance, indicates that the religious influence of the colonial powers over the indigenous practices of Africans through missionary activities were among the causes of the Africans resistance (Kastfelt, 1976,  p. 8).Similarly, Ali (2020) shown that the missionary activities of the Roman Catholic Church in British Somaliland and their opening of a children's village for the orphan in 1881 had followed by the conversion of Muslim children into Catholic.These aroused public resentment against the British that initiated rebellions in the colony.It also stated further that Catholicism expanded in the Italian colony of Somaliland with the expansion of missionary activities which led to the opening of cathedrals in the 1920s and 1930s.Accordingly, out of the 1,150,000 population of the Italian colony 4000 which is approximately 3.5% of the population had converted to Catholicism in 1940 (Ali, 2020, p. 55).The introduction of alcohol was also a factor that initiate a revolt in the two somali territories (Nilson, 1981, p. 17).The rebels of British Somaliland led by Muhammed Abdullah, popularly known as Dervishes, had based themselves in Ogaden.Accordingly, they established a military camp known as Derbalayo in Qorahe near Qebridahar town before they moved to Emie in the western Shabelle River area due to increasing attacks from the British (see Figure 2).Their leader Muhammed Abdullah died in 1921 at Emie in western Ogaden neighboring to the province of Bale. 2 The Italian Somaliland rebels, led by Omer Semeter, also started a war of resistance against the Italian forces in the Ogaden territory of Ethiopia in the early 1920s. 3It is possible to infer that the Somali of the Ogaden could get information related to the aforementioned socio-economic influences of colonial rule to the indigenous peoples from the rebels based on their territories.Therefore, they had resisted the incursions of the colonial forces, following the consent with the central state in 1915, as indicated above. 4The earliest conflict between the Ogaden clans and the Italians, as found recorded in primary sources, was on February 17, 1916 when the former attacked the latter at Bidi camp in the boundary between Ethiopia and their Somaliland colony.As a result, Italian residents and forces were transferred to the relatively safe post of Jelib on the Juba River, which was far from the riches of Somali of Ethiopia. 5To restore their pasture lands in the border, Somalis of Ogaden intensified their attacks against both Italian and British forces in the area in 1916.These forced British and Italian colonial forces to work together to defend themselves from attacks of Somalis of Ethiopia situated to the north of Juba River.The strength that Ogaden Somali clans had during this time was due to negotiation with central state of Ethiopia and the support gained from it. 6

The continued incursions of the Italian Colonial Forces on the border and the response of the Ogaden Somalis Since 1922 to 1930
The Italian colonial forces intensified their expansion in the eastern frontiers of Ethiopia bordering their Somaliland colony with the coming to power of the fascist party in Italy in 1922.Mussolini, who was the leader of the fascist party and government of Italy, had ordered expansion in Ethiopia (Eshete, 1994, p. 80).As indicated in the litrature, the Italian interest to colonize Ethiopia for the second time was because of three factors.These were to revenge their defeat in the battle of Adwa of 1896 and to realize the glory of ancient Rome through controlling overseas territories that they had promising to the Italian people to come to power.The fascist government also planned to use Ethiopia to settle its citizens to employ in the agriculture sector in the fertile lands and as a source of market (Oba, 2016:159; Zewde, 2002, p. 152; Larebo, 1990, pp. 1-2; Sbacchi, 1977, p. 505  & Marino, 2009, p. 3).
The resistance of the Ogaden somalis increased symmetrically with the intensification of the Italian invasion on the border since 1922.Accordingly, the somalis made armed attacks against the Italian forces to restore their resources in the southeastern frontiers in 1924.They also joined the forces of the central government led by Dejazmach Tessema in the campaign to restore Lugh and Dollo in 1925. 7The role that Somalis played in the defense of the Ogaden in this time includes as combatants, source of information and supplies. 8Leaders of both forces, namely Tessema and Jusbasci, died in the conflict.Twelve soldiers died from the Ethiopian side,one among them was a Somali that the Italians had recruited from their Somaliland colony who latter joined Ethiopians prior to the incident.Archives indicate that one among the Somalis inspired Ethiopian forces by informing them that Italians were not brave fighters. 9The Italian legation in Addis Ababa endeavored to intervene ras 10 Teferi Mekonen,the future emperor Haile Selassie I, who had been the principal figure in the central government even before he became emperor on 1931, to stop the military attacks against them in the Ogaden.However, he responded that he had no information related to the issue and told them that he would examine the situation. 11ar was a prominent Somali patriot who mobilized forces and defended the frontiers against the Italian fascist troops since the early 1920s.He initially served the Italians as a soldier in their Somaliland protectorate.However, after they arrested his uncle, Ali Yusuf, who was the traditional ruler of the Hobyo Sultanate, as a measure to abolish the autonomy of the protectorate to establish complete control, Omar rebelled and killed Captain Carolei, an Italian military officer.He then withdrew from there and entered Ethiopian territory in Ogaden where he continued his rebellion (Mockler, 2003).Omar led an organized attack against the Italians in the Dusamereb district situated between Benturgia and Allale near Wabishebele river on 5 July 1926.Although Omar's forces initially dismantled the Italians from their base at Dusamereb, numerical supremacy and better armament enabled them to retain their possession.Omar also launched punitive military campaigns against Marehan and Averghedir clans accusing them of being allies of the Italians.Sixty deaths and hundreds of injuries were reported on Omar's side, while twenty died and ten others were wounded from the Italian side.Surviving members of Omar's forces recoiled further inland in Ogaden.The Italian government believed that Ethiopia was supporting the rebellion of the Somali commanded by Omar.However, accusations of Italian colonial forces against Omar and the central state were not convincing.Sources showed that Italian colonial forces had invaded Ethiopian frontiers.Therefore, Somali insurgency was in the Ethiopian territory of Ogaden, not in their Somaliland colony (Marcus, 1994, p. 139).Ethiopia supported the rebellion to protect itself against Italian incursions in its territories between Dollo and Beledeweyen since the late 1920s.The Aulian Somali clan also attacked the Italians near Dollo in Ogaden in 1926 (see Figure 3 for a photo of Omar).

The intensification of Italian incursions on the Ogaden frontiers and the response of the Ethiopians from 1930s to1934
In 1930, the central state established military posts at Duhun and Degahamedew in the heartland of the Ogaden.This prompted the Italian colonial forces to speed up their invasions of the area.In response, the Italians established a military post at Welwel in the same year (Eshete, 1994, p. 78 &  Oba, 2015:160).By 1931, the Italians had sustained their invasion of the area and occupied Mustehil.The rapid incursions by the Italians created tensions on the Ethiopian side.Consequently, on July16,1931, Dejazmach Gebremariam, as indicated above was the then governor of the area, mobilized forces near Mustehil.The Ethiopian authorities also responded by displaying their military preparedness by deploying troops to Gursum, Jigjiga, Degahagur, and Duhun military bases (Eshete, 1994, p. 80).They also mobilized ten thousand troops between Kelafo and Buslei in the same year.The Somali of the Ogaden were involved in all these activities of Ethiopia to defend the country from this direction.Besides, in logistic support, three hundred of the Ethiopian armed forces mobilized on the left bank of the Shebele river between the border districts of Gheladi and Dulhante were local Somalis.
In the same year in 1931,the Italian fascists intensified their infiltration into the Ogaden and launched a more forceful invasion of the area (Oba, 2013, p. 159).The combined forces that includes the central government and the Somalis under the leadership of fitawrari Asane responded by dislodging the Italian forces and their Majeertin associates at Bubi in Qorahi.The Ethiopian forces took camels that belonged to the Majeertin pastoralists who occupied the area with the Italians.However, based on the camels looted in the campaign, it is possible to argue that the Somali had participated in support of the central state forces to restore the area.This was because highlanders had no experience in using camels for transportation and food.Therefore, Somali pastoralists had managed the camels taken from the Majeertin pastoralists who accompanied the Italians in their invasion.Their participation in the 1931 confrontation is also substantiated by evidence obtained from informants of this study who stated that Somalis had resisted the Italian and their associated pastoralist invasion of frontier lands before the outbreak of 1935/ 36 total war between Ethiopia and Italy.
The Italian colonial forces had publicly shown their determination to colonize Ethiopia since 1932 (Zewde, 2002, p. 153).Consequently, they continued their invasions of the Ogaden vigorously from 1934 onwards and the settlement of the Hawiye and Majeertin pastoralists of Somaliland as well (Marcus, 1994:139).In response, Ethiopian forces sustained their military deployment to defend the border from the Italian invasion until the outbreak of the conflict at Welwel on 5 December 1934.Organized resistance of the combined Ethiopian forces including the local Somali peoples, had succeeded in restricting the Italian forces in the frontiers.In March 1934, Ethiopian government authorities in the area learned about the importance of organizing additional army units that included local peoples of Ogaden to effectively resist the invasion of the Italian colonial forces.Accordingly, the prominent patriot leader Omar Semeter was appointed to organize combined forces.Omar recruited troops from Isaak, Abeskul, and Berteri Somali clans in northern Ogaden bordering British Somaliland.Records produced by Italian colonial agents at this time show that the government of Ethiopia had provided armaments to the forces of Omar (see photograph of Omer in Figure 3).
In March 1934, Ethiopia mobilized three groups of forces consisting of the peoples of the Ogaden and the central government.One of these forces was directed towards Bale to proceed to the southeast.The second force was commanded by Omar Semeter, who would campaign to Mustahil.The third force consisted of 500 members of the Geri Somali situated to the west of Jigjiga town with the leadership of Ato Ali Nur mobilized in the direction of Warder.Ali Nur was a native of the Welayta ethnic group in southern Ethiopia who had been in the service of the state in the Ogaden province centered on Jigjiga town.As soon as the Italians began to invade the frontiers of the Ogaden, he mobilized the Gari Somali clan whom he had been administering and joined the resistance with his countrymen against the Italians at Welwel, Qorahe, and Degahagur.Ali Nur's struggle against the Italian forces ended after he was captured and detained at Dire Dawa following the Italian occupation of the country in May 1936.
In April 1934, the Ethiopian government also mobilized its military in the Ogaden region, where local Somali leaders held sway.The forces were commanded by Sultan Ussen Elemi and Omar Semeter, both of whom were Somali patriots.Each of these chiefs led a force of 1000 troops.These forces were prepared to launch an offensive in the frontier region of Welwal, where Italian troops had previously invaded.These areas are renowned for their water resources, which the Italian forces allowed the pastoralists of Somaliland to access.Stated in the archives as; . . . the statement of the Harer consulate stated that the Ethiopians are forming armed groups of Somalis and Ethiopians under the commander of Sultan Ussen Elmi of the Makail and of the well-known refuge Omar Semantar.It would appear that the two groups of some 1000 men in each, consisting in part Somalis and part of Ethiopians, all armed by the Ethiopian government, are intended for an attack on Walwal and Warder, the wells of which are at present used by very large numbers of our subjects . . . . . . 12e Somali patriots, led by Omer, exerted immense pressure on the Italians.Thus, the Italian Legation in Addis Ababa requested the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ethiopia to order Dejazmach Gebremariam, the then administrator of the Ogaden, to refrain from assigning military missions to Omer Semeter against them. 13e Ethiopian Garrison was established at Gerlogubi in May 1934.It consisted of thirty armed men, ten of whom were the Somalis of the area.Ahmed Hashi, a member of the local Somali community, was the commander of the combined forces of Ethiopia in the newly built garrison.Specified in the original text as" . . .thirty armed men of whom ten are Somalis, led by Ahmed Hashi . . .". 14 Ahmed Hashi was labeled as "notorious" by the Italian colonial forces.However, if he had allied with them, they would have recognized him as a "hero".Despite this, Ethiopians will always remember Ahmed Hashi as their national "hero" due to his role in defending the country against the Italian invasion.It further indicated that the Ethiopian forces at Gerlogubi would receive reinforcements from the Qebridahar military camp. 15 July 1934, Omar Semeter led more than one hundred Somali armed forces in five and seven hours of foot travel far from Walwal and Warder respectively.Omar's forces were making regular patrols in Welwel and its vicinities.Ali Nur also commanded four hundred armed Somali troops and was situated at Marsin Gelegelo and carefully observing the Italian movements.On the other hand, the Italian military officers arrived at Mudugah and Geladi surrounding Warder in June 1934 to prepare their forces in response to the patriot's movements in the area.Thousands of Ethiopian troops marched to Sirro near Welwel to support the forces of Omar Semeter on 9 July 1934.Two weeks after on 20 July 1934 Omer's forces numbered two hundred and fifty were stationed at Marsin Gelegelo and waited for assistance before being moved to Danot.Omar's forces at this time belonged to the Isaak tribes found in the area between Jigjiga and Hargeisa.The Abskeul and Berterie clans who lived in the vicinities of Jigjiga also belonged to the forces of Omar.Omar's Isaak troops were armed with carbines made in Britain while others were equipped with Mennlichelers from Ethiopia.The Italians recognized that Omer's objective in July 1934 was to make a campaign against their Somaliland clans settled in the Ethiopian frontiers including the Ogaden clans who collaborated with them.The forces of Omar were still in a campaign at Marsin Gelgelo on 2 August 1934 where they faced a shortage of provisions.This seriously hampered the resistance and forced them to withdraw to Degahagur which was their base of supplies.Omer's son whose name is not mentioned in the records was also captured by the Italian forces near Markawan. 16Presented in the archive as; . . .Omar Semeter's men, many of whom are sick, are still in Marsin Gelgelo, from which it appears they will fall back to Degahagur.They are short of supplies.Near Markawen, the son of Omar Semeter was arrested.He stated that the Ethiopians in Degahagur had supplied Omer Semeter's band with food, but that afterward, Omar Semeter received other supplies from Isak tribes . . . 17mer was unwavering in his struggle against the Italian fascist colonial forces since the 1920s.There was a verse that people used to express Omer's fearlessness in the struggle against the Italian fascist colonial forces.Noted in the literature as; Whatever the earth shakes Whatever the sky collapses The eastern tendon cannot be bothered 18 The local Somali patriots also occupied a strategic place near Ubertale between Ado and Warder on 28 November 1934.The success of the Somali patriots' control of the area was due to their tactic of undertaking their military mission having dressed identical to the Italian Somali troops recruited in their Somaliland colony as indicated above known as Dubats.The Italian colonial forces refused to acknowledge the Somali resistance and instead labeled the freedom fighters as "bandits".This event is documented in historical records; ". ..found the post occupied by a strong patrol of Ethiopians or bandit who were dressed exactly like the Dubats and tried to deceive our Dubats by challenging them in Italian . . .". 19

The 5 th December 1934 Welwel conflict between Ethiopia and Italy and the role of somali
According to Mockler (2003, pp.37-38), the joint Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission arrived at Welwel on 22 November 1934. 20The commission aimed to investigate the grazing rights of Somali clans on both sides of the border in British Somaliland and Ethiopia (Mockler, 2003, p. 37).Colonel Clifford led the British envoys, while Fitawrari Tessema Bantie headed the Ethiopian delegates.Stated as; " . . .fitawrari Tessema was assigned to fix the boundary line with the British boundary commission . . .". 21 The commission was accompanied by armed forces led by fitawrari Shiferaw and fitawrari Alemayehu.Fitawrari Shiferaw was the administrator of the Ogaden area, with Jigjiga city as its center.The Ogaden was an administrative unit comprising the entire Somali-inhabited territories in Ethiopia within the Hararghe Province. 22According to Yesuf Elmi's 23 provided to the Italians, fitawrari Sheferaw commanded a total of 600 troops.Fitawrari Alemayhu also joined the forces of fitawrari Shiferaw at Addo with 200 armed forces.Thus, a total of 800 Ethiopian troops arrived at Welwel.Additionally, some 250 Somalis commanded by Omar Semeter were mobilized in adjoining districts of Welwel too.Addressed in the archive as; . . .At Ado we found about 600 Ethiopian armed men under the command of Fitawrari Shiferaw and 250 Somali non-formal troops led by Omar Semeter.Some days before the Shiferaw column left Ado for Welwel 200 more armed Ethiopians had arrived with fitawrari Alemayehu . . . . 24e Joint Commission noted that the Italians had taken control of Warder and Welwel, which were oases in the arid region due to the presence of water wells.Upon observing the occupation of Welwel,Ethiopian representatives of the Joint Commission requested the Italians to withdraw from the area.Stated as " . . . the first Ethiopians who arrived at Welewel were asked where they wanted to go.They replied that they intended to proceed their voyage because they were in Ethiopian territory . . . .". 25 The Italian forces requested the Ethiopian leader of the commission to demarcate the boundary based on their interest which would make Ethiopia lose territories in the frontiers including Welwel itself (Mockler, 2003, p. 31).The Ethiopian delegates did not agree to demarcate the border, they told the Italian forces to withdraw, instead.However, the Italians refused to withdraw, which became the cause for the incidence of armed conflict between the two on 5 December 1934 at Welwel. 26o hundred Somalis commanded by Ali Nur, Mahamud Ebrahim, Sultan Bede (the latter fitawrari Bede), and Erzi Jama were part of the combined Ethiopian forces who participated in the Welwel confrontation of 5 December 1934 against the fascist Italian forces made to liberate the area.Somalis led by Omar Semeter were also mobilized to Ado a day before the Welwel incident.Specified in the note as; . . .A few days before we left,the chiefs Ali Nur,Omar Samatar, Mahamud Ebrahim, and particularly Erzi Jama, informed the armed irregulars that they were to be sent with the Ethiopian forces at Welwel in Ethiopian territory . . . on the night of November 29 th , I saw that Ethiopian armed forces and Somali irregulars were nearly ready to attack Italians positions . . . . 27e Ethiopians were defeated in the battle at Welwel, resulting in the death of 107 patriots and injury of 40 others on the Ethiopian side (Mockler, 2003, p. 39).On the Italian side, 30 soldiers died and 100 were injured.Shown in the statement;" . . .fierce fighting ensued, however, the Dubats managed to hold their ground although thirty of them died and hundreds were wounded . . .". 28 The Somali people played a significant role in providing food, water, camels, and horses to the Ethiopian patriots mobilized to Welwel.The highlanders had no experience in using camels for transport, so the Somali's role in transporting supplies through the use of camels was indispensable.The highlanders had no experience in using the camel for transport as indicated above, the role of the Somali in the transportation of supplies in the lowlands through the use of camels was indispensable.Specified in the letter;" . . .Balambars 29 Tesfa's three hundred troops dispatched into three different routes to facilitate water and food supplies, which were to be provided by the local population . . .". 30 Furthermore, during the period of escalating tension between the Ethiopian and Italian forces leading up to the Welwel incident on 5 December 1934, three Dubats defected from the Italian army and joined the Ethiopian forces.However, this did not result in an Ethiopian victory in the war or the restoration of their territory. 31Additionally, some members of the combined Ethiopian forces who surrendered to the Italian forces.Yusuf Elmi and Ahmed Abdi were among the Somalis who joined the Italian forces. 32Desta Sahlu, Tefere Feye, Worku Zelleke, Aile Tama, and Abate Meshesha were among the members of the central government forces who surrendered to the Italians.Abate Meshesha was a commander of an army unit consisting of one hundred soldiers belonging to the central government.He abandoned the Ethiopian camp and surrendered to the Italians in a critical situation.The Ethiopian soldiers who surrendered to the Italian colonial forces did not betray their country.Instead, they surrendered because they observed that the Italians had modern weapons that the Ethiopian forces would not be able to resist.Indicated in the data; " . . .chief Abbate Meshasha who was commander of armed forces numbering hundred which I belonged, urged me to desert; on the night of November 26, the chief succeeded in deserting Tefere Feye, Worku Zelleke, and Aile Tama . . .". 33 The Italians' superiority in modern armaments, including warplanes, machine guns, better provisions, and communication technologies, was among the factors that enabled them to emerge victorious in the Welwel conflict of December 1934.The Ethiopians did not resist the Italian military measures as they had not prepared for the incidence.
The document notes that the Ethiopian defeat at Welwel was characterized by a hasty and chaotic retreat.One of the surrendered soldiers lamented that the enemy's military might was overwhelming and impossible to resist.Consequently, the Ethiopian forces' withdrawal from Welwel in December 1934 was disorganized and lacked proper planning. 34Noted in the message; ". ..the rout was precipitate and disorderly . . .machine above machine, impossible to resist . . .". 35

The Italo-Ethiopian war in the eastern front since October 1935 and the role of the local Somali peoples
Ethiopia wanted to solve the conflict with Italy diplomatically through the intervention of the League of Nations. 36However, despite its control of Ethiopia's territories, Italy made the country responsible for the incident at Welwel on December 1934.Therefore; to settle the problem through diplomacy Italy demanded unacceptable preconditions.Accordingly, Italy claimed Welwel and its surroundings from Ethiopia and also official apologies for the event.Italy also requested Ethiopia to pay reparation for the whole losses that it had encountered and hand over the Somali patriot Omar Semeter (Mockler, 2003, pp.39-40).Ethiopia did not accept all these demands of Italy, therefore, its attempt to conclude the incident through concession was not successful (Mockler,  2003, pp.39-40 & Zewde, 2002, p. 153).
Earlier on 28 December 1934, the Italian fascist forces bombed the Ethiopian forces led by Afework Weldesemayat at Gerelegubie through aircrafts.The offensives made Afework retreat towards Qorahe and entrenched in Muhammed Abdulah's military base in the environs of Qebridahar city (Mockler, 2003, pp.40,51&52).The Somali patriots under the leadership of Omar Semeter also continued their struggle against the Italian colonial forces in Gerelegubie, Elbure, and others on the border after the December 1934 incident of Welwel.The earliest of the armed attacks after the Welwel incident was made nearly a month after December 1934 to occupy the strategic place near Afdub.Initially, the Somali forces pushed the Italians back and restored the frontier.However, with the mobilization of additional troops from their base in their colony of Somaliland, the Italians remained in control of the Ethiopian territories in the area . 37 October 1935, Italy initiated a full-scale invasion of Ethiopia.Unlike the 1890s, when the Italian occupation of Ethiopia was limited to the north, their invasion in the 1930s began on both the northern and southern fronts, using their colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland, respectively.As in the 1890s, Ethiopians resisted the Italian invasion in the 1930s (Zewde, 2002, pp.153-157).Somalis from the Ogaden region joined Ethiopian forces in their resistance against the Italian invasion in the area (Oba, 2013, pp.163-164).For example, in January and February 1935, 400 troops from the central state and 250 Somalis launched two armed campaigns to restore Afdeb on the border, but were unsuccessful.This occurred prior to the outbreak of total war between Ethiopia and Italy in October 1935.Indicated in the annals as; " . . .400 Ethiopians and 250 Somali having again advanced and entrenched themselves about a thousand meters from Afdub, recommenced to encircle Afdub, with the obvious intention of capturing the garrison but not successful . . . 38malis from the Ogaden region continued their attacks against Italian forces stationed in the area as of May 1935.For instance, they engaged in an armed conflict with clans from Italian Somaliland who had invaded their territories of Agable, located between the Italian garrison posts of El-Beit and Korokoi in the Ogaden.Records further indicate that Somalis from the Ogaden took camels belonging to Somalis from the Italian colony.Mentioned in the document as; ". ..armed men of reer Abdullah and Talmoge carried out a raid against our Somali subjects, took about hundred camels near Agable between El Beit and Korokoi . . ." 39

The battle of Qorahe
Observing the Italian advances in the frontiers following the Walwal confrontation of 5 December 1934, Afework Weledesemayat, who was the then governor of the Ogaden had mobilized forces in the area.He appeared in the defense of the area since 1933 after the defeat of the Ethiopian forces and the death of their leader fitawrari Wegayeh Robe while fighting against the Somali rebel forces under the leadership of Olol Dineli on 20 October 1933 with the support of the Italian fascist colonial forces.Once arrived in the area Afework made reconciliations with the local people of the Ogaden whom the rebels had based.He had got support of the local people in his campaign against the rebel leader Olol.This enabled Afeworq to defeat the forces of Olol Dinelh.However, due to the military support that the Italians had provided to him, Olol escaped to the Italianoccupied areas (Eshete, 1994, pp.82-83).
Due to the rapid Italian incursions, the combined forces led by Dejazmach Afework remained in the frontiers of the Ogaden and established fortresses at Qorahe plains near Qebridahar city (Mekuria, 1984, p. 233).Mekuria also noted that the Somalis of Ethiopia rebelled against the Italian invasion since 1935 (Mekuria, 1984, p. 69).The rebellion of Somalis against the Italian colonial invasion is also documented by other writers with as well.For instance, Gebissa, based on British records, shows that peoples of Tigray, Gojjam, and the Ogaden had rebelled against the Italian invasion.However, he ignored the resistance of Oromo against the invasion, instead, emphasized their collaboration with Italian colonial forces until the liberation in 1941.Nevertheless, compared to the pro-ethnic views reverberated in the manuscript Gebissa's notes on the rebellions of the peoples of the peripheries against the Italian invasion is valued (Gebissa,  2002, p. 76).
Liberal writers, instead, addressed the internal rivalries among the Ethiopians and the success of the Italian subversion schemes as factors for various groups of people in the country to collaborate with the Italians (Oba, 2016:160 & Mockler, 2003, p. 32).Kenea and Adissu (2020) gives credit to Oromo patriotism and noted the struggles of the Oromo against the Italian forces in different places from the beginning of the Italo-Ethiopian war on 1935 until liberation (Kenea & Adissu, 2020, pp.4906-4909).The participation of the Oromo in the resistance is also shown in Zewde  (2002) as it stated it was a nationwide event that people everywhere in the country had rebelled against the Italian colonial forces until the liberation of the country in 1941 (Zewde, 2002, p. 171).
Clan leaders, including Ugas Hashi Muhamed and Fitawrari Bede, joined the Ethiopian forces led by Dejazmach Afework at Qorahe. 40The support provided by these clan leaders to the resistance inspired the somalis to participate in the 1935/36 war that Ethiopia fought to defend itself against the Italian colonial occupation.The Gari Somali clan, which had already mobilized under the leadership of Ali Nur, also joined the Ethiopian forces at Qorahe (Mekuria, 1984, p. 69 & Mockler,  2003).
The participation of the peoples of Tigray in northern Ethiopia and the Ogaden in the Ethiopian resistance against the Italian forces are cited in the literature.Braukämper (2011), for instance, noted that the traditional leaders alone had participated as fighters in the Ethiopian war of resistance, whereas the participation of the local people was in lower activities mainly in support of the combatants including the supply of provisions (Braukämper, 2011, p. 166).Oral traditions and archives used for this survey substantiate Braukamper's notes on the participation of the clan leaders in the 1935-36 Ethiopian War of Resistance.However, unlike Braukämper (2011) the aforesaid pieces of evidence indicate the contribution of the Somali people besides the clan leaders as fighters and suppliers of provisions in the resistance.Accordingly, Braukämper's (2011)accounts of the roles of the peoples of the south in the war of resistance against the Italian forces as not complete need revision (Braukämper, 2011).
The Somali patriots under the leadership of the prominent patriot Omar Semeter joined Afeworq's forces at Qorahe.They fought against the Italian forces for two months from October 1935 until the death of Dejazmach Afeworq on December 1935.Once the Ethiopian resistance at Qorahe was broken with the death of their leader Afework in November 1935, Omar's forces withdrew to Hanely further to the northwest where they continued the resistance.This was followed by the Italians' invasion of Qorahe (Mockler, 2003, p. 69 & Mekuria, 1984, p. 234).
Omar's struggle for nearly two decades ended when he was seriously injured in 1936 while fighting against the Italians in southern Ogaden (see Figure 1).He withdrew to Jigjiga and went to London to get medical treatment through Hargiesa, which was the administrative center of the British colony of Somaliland.He returned back to Ethiopia following the liberation of the country after the five years of fascist Italian rule in 1941.Upon his return, he was made Dejazmach and appointed as the administrator of the Harshin district in the Ogaden province from 1941 until his death in 1943.Omar was buried in the Muslim city of Harar, which has been known for its Islamic heritage and a center for Islamic education.There is a verse associated with Omer's courageousness.These verses had been prepared in an attempt to express his patriotism and the sacrifice that he paid to the defense of the country against the Italian occupation.It goes; The The resistance the Italians encountered at Qorahe from the Ethiopians under Dejazmach Afeworwaq was so stiff that they didn't occupy the district easily.Hence, they employed subversive tactics and worked to get the alliance of local chiefs in the area.They made Hussien Ayle who was another traditional chief in the lower Ogaden their ally against the central government like Olol Dinelh of the Merhan clan who as indicated above rebelled and collaborated with the Italians until his defeat in 1933.Accordingly, they provided armaments to the forces of HussienAyle to use in armed hostilities against his countrymen (Mockler, 2003, p. 52). 44The Italians faced a formidable resistance from the Ethiopians under Dejazmach Afeworwaq at Qorahe, which made it difficult for them to occupy the area.Consequently, they resorted to subversive tactics and sought the support of local chiefs in the region.They allied with Hussien Ayle, another traditional chief in southeastern Ogaden, against the central government, just like Olol Dinelh of the Merhan clan who had rebelled and collaborated with the Italians until his defeat in 1933.The Italians provided Hussien Ayle's forces with armaments to use against their fellow countrymen (Mockler, 2003, p. 52).

The battle of Degahagur
Ras Nesibu Zamanuel, who was the administrator of the Hararghe province prepared the Ogaden for war to defend the country against Italian colonialism in October 1935.More than 28,000 troops under the leadership of the Turkish general Mehemet Wehip Pash were mobilized in April 1936 (Mockler, 2003, pp.69-70).The Somali living in northern Ogaden mainly, Gari, Yebere, Bertrie, and Abeskul clans were mobilized for war under their traditional leaders Sultan Bede, who was the leader of the Abeskul clan, Sultan Ussen Elmie of the Makel clan, Mahamud Ebrahim Gure of the Ogaden in Degahagur and others.The war between the Italian colonial troops and the Ethiopians started on 15 April 1936.The Ethiopian forces put up a strong resistance against the Italian advances, but the latter, who had access to the latest military technologies, used chemical weapons and their monopoly of the air to break the Ethiopian resistance within two weeks of fighting on 30 April 1936 3 6 .As a result, the Ethiopian forces were forced to withdraw from Degahagur (Mockler, 2003, p. 70; Zewde, 2002, p. 157 & Mekuria, 1984, p. 254).
According to Marino (2009, p. 7), the Italian forces bombed Jigiga and Harar towns using aircraft to intimidate the people and prevent them from resisting their invasion.Oba (2016:166) further clarified that the Italian bomb attacks in the eastern front were deliberate and aimed at drying up the resource base of the Ethiopian forces.The cattle of Somali pastoralists in the Jigjiga area were among the victims of these attacks.The livestock, which was the source of their livelihood, was killed, leading to a retaliatory attack by the people.The Italian fascist colonial pilot who had fallen on the ground due to technical problems with his aircraft was killed in this attack.According to Mekuria (1984, p. 254), the Italian fascist troops launched a punitive military expedition against the pastoralists, making the Somali communities in the vicinities of Jigjiga victims.This led to an initially hostile relationship between the Somali people of the Jigjiga district and the Italians.Oba (2016:171) further explains that the Italians also carried out similar offensives against the Somali who settled in the Dawa river area in southeastern Ogaden earlier in 1935 due to their involvement in the resistance of Ethiopia.These extensive attacks enabled the Italians to control Jigjiga and Harar towns.The Ethiopian resistance in the Ogaden was completely defeated, and Nasibu, the leader on the eastern front as mentioned earlier, was exiled to Djibouti along with the emperor on 2 May 1935.The Italian occupation of Ethiopia began with their entry into Addis Ababa, which had been the capital of Ethiopia, on 5 May 1936 (Zewde, 2002, p. 157)

The Italian Colonial rule in the Somali Region and the Resistance
After the Italian occupation of Ethiopia in 1936, the Somali pastoralists of the Jigjiga area were relocated to distant regions in the west due to conflicts with the Italians, who had attacked them offensively.However, some time later, young men were conscripted into the Italian army, which caused a rift between them and their communities.The young recruits eventually informed their elders that they would not work against the interests of their communities, and this helped to pacify their relationship. 45

Italian rule in the Ogaden
The Italian colonial forces employed a divide-and-rule strategy in Ethiopia to establish effective colonial rule in the country.This was mainly achieved by dividing the people along ethnic, cultural, and religious lines (Omer, 2000, pp.147-149 and; Zewde, 2002, p. 168).According to sources, some people in the South preferred Italian colonial rule due to ethnic, administrative, social, and economic abuses.Stated in the British archives as " . . . the Oromo and Somali welcomed the Italian occupation as offering the prospect of relief from oppression.The dislike of the ruling class was because of racial, administrative, social, and economic reasons . . ..". 46 Due to their divide-and-rule tactic the Italian forces severed the Ogaden from the rest of Ethiopia and merge it with their Somaliland colony, in view of ethnic and religious similarities (Braukämper, 2011, p. 172 & Zewde, 2002, p. 162).
To facilitate military mobilization, administration, and the exploitation of resources the Italian colonial agents connected the Ogaden with their Somaliland colony through dry weather roads passing along the border town of Dollo.Indeed the Italians had started to integrate the borderlands in the Ogaden with their Somaliland colony through road infrastructure before their occupation of Ethiopia in 1936.Though principally to their benefit, the Italians had built water wells in Qebridahar, Degahagur, Jigjiga, and others in the region which they also allowed the local peoples to use the water. 47They also transferred the land that the ruling class in the region had used to cultivate in the vicinities of Jigjiga to the Somali peoples (Eshete, 1988:89).The Italian colonial rule showed sympathy towards Muslims of Ethiopia.In a meeting held at Addis Ababa with the sheiks who came from the provinces mainly from Jimma, Harar, Wollo, Somali, Shewa, Gurage, and Eritrea in 1936, Graziani who was the colonial governor of the Italian East Africa empire told them that could practice their religion freely in the country. 48This was followed by the building of Mosques archetypal of the time in Qelafo, Qebridahar, Degahagur, Jigjiga in the Ogaden like other parts of the country (see Figure 4).The Italian economic and religious sympathy for the Somali of Ethiopia was to get their acceptance in the region. 49Therefore, the Italian divide-and-rule strategy initially looked successful in Ogaden as there were people who did not oppose their rule.The British archives shows that the Oromo and other peoples of the south considered Italian occupation as an opportunity to be free from the exploitation of the central state agents.Indicated in the document as ". ..in the early period of their occupation Italians enjoyed a certain success of their policy of favoring the former subject peoples in the non-Amharic speaking area of the Ethiopian empire . . .". 50 However, the success of the Italians in getting the acceptance of the aforesaid peoples to their colonial rule was short-lived.The fascist rule did not establish local autonomy in its eastern African empire in general, which the Somali of the Ogaden had belonged.It rather exercised direct control over its colonial territories in the region.As fascism and colonialism in their nature did not accept equality of people, the Italian colonial forces undermined the natives (Zewde, 2002, p. 167).Consequently, despite the differences in the intensity of the struggle, the people of Ethiopia revolted against the Italian colonial forces (Marino, 2009, p. 9 & Zewde, 2002, pp.167-168).The British records indicate that the Somalis were not more hostile to the Ethiopians compared to Europeans.Noted in the archive;" . . .there is no evidence that the Somali are more antagonists to the Ethiopians than the Europeans . . .". 51 In spite of the existence of rivalries between some local chiefs and the central state forces in the Ogaden before the Italian occupation of the area in 1936 still, there were patriots who had worked together with the central state in the cause of their nation as indicated above.Therefore, one can argue that these traditional chiefs sustained their loyalty to the country in the period of the Italian colonial rule to 1941 and the peoples under their influence like others in the country.
Sources indicated that there were also Somali armed insurgencies based in the environs of Degahagur town against the Italian colonial forces led by Muhamud Ebrahim Gure during the years of occupation from 1936 to 1941. 52Informants in Degahagur town stated that in the postliberation period, the ex-leader of the armed movement against the Italian colonial forces, Mahamud Ebrahim went to the imperial palace at Addis Ababa to get emperor Haile Selassie I who was in exile in Britain in the five years of the Italian occupation and restored his power after liberation of the country on 1941.However, the palace guards did not allow Mahamud to enter into the palace.Informants said that after Mahamud met the emperor, he asked him ' you son of Mekonen ' 53 'did you refuse my request to meet you?, the emperor responded "no I did not" and asked him in response, "Why I could not allow honored individuals like you who had paid sacrifice to their country ?."They further stated that Mahamud created a humorous situation by making pleasing speeches.Accordingly, he expressed the sacrifice he and the patriots under his command paid to the cause of the nation until liberation.The informants stated directly;' . . .undeniable when you all had in abroad in the safety of exile, I was leading a war of liberation against the Italians.Therefore, if you had not allowed me to enter in the palace, it could have been astonishing . . ..". 54 There is a memorial school named Ugas Mahamud Ebrahim at Degahagur town in remembrance of the well-known patriot of the area (see Figure 5).
The British microfilm archives in folder 371 also indicate that two Somali clan chiefs in the lower Ogaden whose names not mentioned had been mobilized their communities against the Italian invasion until 1936.These chiefs remained dedicated to the country through exile to Aden in the five years of the Italian occupation from 1936 until liberation in 1941.They communicated with the emperor when he was at Khartoum in Sudan on his way back to Ethiopia with British military support to lead the liberation struggle.Noted in Folder 371 as " . . .two Somali chieftains from Welwel area remained loyal to the emperor and stayed in Aden throughout the Italian occupation and were in communication with the emperor at Khartoum . . ..". 55 The Italian colonial forces did not mobilize their Somali troops whom they recruited in Ethiopia in their war against the British in Ogaden.This was because they suspected that the Somalis would ally with the British forces and come to fight against them together with the Ethiopians.Therefore, the Italian fascist colonial forces brought their Somali soldiers to Quara and Mettema in northwest Ethiopia on the Ethio-Sudanese border in their war against the combined British and Ethiopian forces. 56 the speech he addressed to the Somali people of Jigjiga town in 1954, emperor Haile Sellasie gave recognition to the sacrifice that the Somalis had paid in the defense of the country.Aware of their roles in the resistance, the government provided traditional leadership titles to the patriot leaders.It also appointed them to play their own roles in the administration of their respective communities in the area.The renowned patriots Omer Semeter and Mahamud Ebrahim were promoted to the traditional administrative rank of Dejjazmachand appointed to administer the districts of Harshin and Degahagur respectively.Sultan Bede of the Abeskul clan became Fitawrari 57 and was appointed to administer the Qebribeyah district, which is situated between Jigjiga and Harshin districts. 58e emperor believed that the Somali could contribute more to the country.Therefore, told the people to educate their children to work in the bureaucracy and play their roles in the building of the the nation.To educate children of the ex-patriots a school known as "the school village of brave patriot'schildren" had opened in the neighboring city of Harar.The school is known today as the "Light of the East Children Support Center"(see Figure 6).Some children of the ex-patriots who completed their primary and secondary education in the aforesaid school enrolled in the then Haile Selassie I university known today as Addis Ababa University.After graduation they were appointed public offices at various levels.Abdullahi Bede, the son of the renowned patriot Fitawrari Bede as indicated above who had mobilized the Abeskul Somali clan was among the graduates who had been assigned to higher public departments.Abdullahi sustained his services to the nation after the demise of the imperial government in 1974, also.Accordingly, he was appointed as the administrator of the Haraghe province during the military regime that ruled the country from 1974 to 1991.Abdulai had ruled one of the largest administrative units situated in the eastern and southeastern parts of the country until his death in 1977(See Figure 7). 60

Conclusion
According to Omonijo et al. (2015, p. 53), patriotism is a sacrifice that individuals or groups make for the benefit of their country.This research suggests that the Somali people participated in Ethiopia's struggle against Italian colonial forces in the Ogaden region since 1916.However, most literature indicates that the Ethiopian struggle against Italian colonial forces began with the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in May 1935 until the liberation in 1941 (Seyoum, 2003).This study, which is based on primary records, oral sources, and secondary literature, argues that hostilities between Ethiopians and Italians on the Ogaden began a year after the Battle of Adwa in 1897.As it reveals incidents of hostilities between local Somalis and Italians on the frontiers since 1916, this study introduces new knowledge on the subject.This study contradicts the notion that only the ruling class and their forces had made sacrifices for Ethiopian independence from Italian invasion.It also challenges the views of ethno-nationalist writers and their foreign supporters who argue that the peoples of the periphery including the Somali had been waiting for opportunities to be autonomous from the administration of the central state and, therefore, collaborated with the Italian forces in the Ogaden.This study depended on various sources, instead, revealed that like the Amhara, Oromo, and other groups of peoples, there were Somalis who due to disagreements with the central state agents rebelled against the central state and allied with the Italian invaders.The Somali rebels led by Olol Dinleh and Ussen Aylie also fought against the central state forces including the Somali peoples who had cooperated with the central state forces in the region.However, most of the Somalis led by their traditional leaders namely Omer Semeter, Ussen Elmie, Sultan Bede, Ahmed Hashi, Erzi Jama, Mahamud Ebrahim, and others had resisted the Italians in the Ogaden since 1916.Mbapndah (2021, p. 71) argues that history can help build nations by instilling patriotism in citizens through the study of past generations.This study concludes that Somalis, along with other  peoples, made significant sacrifices to protect Ethiopia from the Italian invasion in the Ogaden from 1916 until liberation in 1941.Therefore, it is crucial to promote the magnificent history of the Somali people defending the border from foreign invasion.The study recommends that the history of Somali patriotism and sacrifice be included in the national academic syllabus at various levels so that students can learn from these lessons.

Acknowledgment
This study was made possible through the contributions of many individuals.We would like to express our gratitude to Jigjiga University for their financial support, without which this work would not have been possible.We would also like to acknowledge the invaluable assistance provided by the people who shared their knowledge with us during our fieldwork, as well as the librarians at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies at Addis Ababa University for their unwavering support in providing access to valuable archives and other sources.Finally, we would like to extend our thanks to those who advised us on studying the role of the Somali in Ethiopia's resistance against Italian colonial invasion.

Funding
The work was supported by the Jigjiga University.
Notes 1.All infromants told the researchers that as the Italian invasion of the territories were always followed by the settelemenet of pastoralist from the Italian colony of Somaliland, these causes the somali of the Ogaden to be displaced from their water sources.
Fighter at Welwel in the frontiers The warrior at Afdug in the frontiers The combatant at Qorahe in the Frontiers Sheik 41 of the Artillery Teacher of the Liban 42 Death Calls you also, Omer Semeter 43 (see Omer's photo at figure, 3)

Figure 4 .
Figure 4.The Italian built mosque at Qebridahar.Source: A photograph by the researchers, 2021.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.The former school village of brave patriots children of Harar city known today as "the eastern Light children support center".Source: A photograph by the researchers, 2021.

Figure 7 .
Figure 7. Photo of Abddualhi Bedi, son of the renowned patriot Sultan Bede.Source: Addis Zemen News Paper, printed in Amharic Language, 1977.

No Name Status Age Place of Interview Date of Interview Remark
Ogaden region and served as a general in the Somali army.After retiring from the army, he returned to Degahagur, where he had extensive knowledge of the resistance movement in the area.He also shared information about the Italians' favorable attitude towards Islam in Ethiopia, which he had obtained from local elders.As the traditional leader of the Ogaden clan, also known as the ugas, he possesses valuable information regarding the Italian expansion and the response of the Ogaden Somali.Specifically, he has knowledge that his grandfather, Ugas Hashi, was their leader.He also has significant information associated with the support of the Somali to the central state forces against the Italian invasion, as most of the contention until 1936 was there.Additionally, he provided us with insights into changes and continuities related to Italian rule in the area and its response.As a contemporary community leader and descendant of the patriots, he has valuable information.Ugas of the Somali people in Emie, located in the western Shebelle River basin.He possesses extensive knowledge about the British rule in the region and the reaction of the people led by his grandfather, who was also an Ugas.Additionally, he provides valuable information about the response of the Somali people in the area to Italian colonial rule 2. Informants: Ato Ahmed Abdirahman; Ugas Muhamed Dullele, and Ugas Abdi 3. League of Nations, 1935, Memorandum on the activities of the Refuge Omar Semeter, Annex1, p.128. 4. Informants: All informants told the researchers that the Somali of the Ogaden had resisted the expansion of the Italian as well as the British colonial forces in the area. 5. Folder 371, A Letter from the deputy East African . . . . . ., No Number, Date 13 February 1916, p.9. 6. Ibid.7. League of Ntions,1935, A letter from the Governorate of Somaliland adressed to the Italian Colonial Ministry, Document No. 6, September 20th ,1924 and A letter from the Italian Ministry for Foreign Affairs adressed to the Italian Legation at Addis Ababa Document No.7 September 271, 924, UgasMuhamed Dullele,and Ugas Abdi 9. League of Nations,1935,A letter from the Government of Somaliland addressed to . . . .No.6, September 20 th 1924, League of Nations,1935and A letter from the Italian Ministry For Foreign Affairs to the Italian Legation Addis Ababa, No.8, 1924, p.14, 10.Ras is a traditional military tiltle of Ethiopia whic League of Nations,1935,it refers to commander of an army divisison 11.A Ltter from the Italian Legation of Addis Ababa Addressed to the Italian Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Document No.919 August 1925,pp.14-15,League of Nations,1935 12. League of Nation,1935,A letter from the Government of Somaliland to the colonial Ministry, Annex 1d, April 4 th , 1934-XII, p. 129 and A letter from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the Italian Legation at Addis Ababa, Annex 1e, April 21 st ,1934,p.12913.A letter from the Italian Legation of Addis Ababa to the ministry of Forign affairs of Italy,APRIL 29-TH ,1934-XII,Annex 1f,p.130.14.A letter from the Italian Legation at Addis Ababa to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Annex 1f, April 29th, 1934-XII League of Nation,1935.In this archive the Italians identified Ahmed as "notorious" However, we belive that this statement must not put as it is therefore, do not included.15.Ibid.16.A letter from the colonial Governor of Somaliland addressed to the Colonial Ministry, Annex 1 m August 2 nd 1934, p.131, League of Nation,1935.17. Ibid.18. Amhara Media Corporation (2021)."Omer Semeter" a news report presented in the eighty years anniversary of the Ethiopian liberation day of 5 May 1961.The reporter cited the book written by Tekele Tsadik Mekuria in the Amharic language entitled Ye Ethiopia Tarik from Tewodros II to Haile Selassie I, published on 1976.It is also found in the corporations social media mainly facebook page.19.League of Nation, 1935, A letter from the Government of Somaliland to the Colonial Ministry, Annex 38, January 6 th , 1935-XIII, p.149.20.A letter from the Colonial Governor of Italian Somaliland, Department of Civil and Political Affairs, Evidence Given by the prisoner,KibretIgo, Annex 301,934-XIII,p.145and colonial Governor of Somaliland,Department of Political and Civil Affairs, Evidence Given by Ethiopian Deserter, DestaSahlu, Annex 31, no-date,1934-XIII, p.146, League of Nation, 1935.21.A letter from the government of Somaliland to the colonial ministry, Annex 3, November 22, 1934, p.131; Letter addressed by FitawrariAlemayehu to Ato Metaferia Biru, Annex 22, Dated 4 th December 1934-XIII, p.140 and Government of Italian Somaliland,Department of Civil and Political Affairs, Evidenece Given by the Ethiopian prisoner, KibretIgo.Annex 30,p.145,League of Nation,1935.22. League of Nations, 1935, A letter from fitawrari Shiferaw to Gelaye Tesema November 271,934-