A review article on the impact and challenges of mobile phone usage on agricultural production in Africa

Abstract Digitalization has been one of the most important technological advancements in the recent decades. Its impact cuts across all sectors, including agriculture. In Africa, this innovation offers possible solutions to agricultural challenges such as lack of accessibility to market information, lack of information on weather forecast and knowledge transfer which can result in significant drawbacks. Thus, this paper aims to unveil the effects and challenges of Information Communication Technology (ICT) on agricultural development in Africa, focusing on mobile phone usage. This paper uses a systematic literature review approach for identifying and screening relevant studies. After material extraction, data synthesis, and critical evaluation of 96 articles initial papers, 21 articles were included in this study. It is evident that digitalization has a positive impact on agricultural development in Africa. For instance, it improves market systems between farmers and end-users through simplified communication. It also reduces climate vulnerability and variability effect by disseminating useful climate information beforehand through radio, SMS, and mobile apps weather forecast. In order for Africa to unravel its agricultural sector’s full potential, there is need for infrastructure investment including electricity provision and network availability from the service providers. In addition, the government should also strengthen policies that promote the expansion of internet connectivity both in rural and urban areas in order to stimulate the acquisition and usage of mobile phones.


Introduction
Digitalization has been considered one of the important technological developments in the recent decade due to its substantial effect on our daily lives, including farmers (MacPherson et al., 2022;Mondejar et al., 2021).It has many benefits not only for industries but also for smallholder farmers, as well as supply chain management (Deichmann et al., 2016).It also improves market information (Fafchamps & Minten, 2012), enhances farm productivity and input use (Guo et al., 2018).In Africa, the use of text messaging services or websites significantly accelerates smallscale farmers' access to market links and distribution channels, finance services, and extension services, which were previously unavailable to them (Qiang et al., 2012).
Despite its apparent benefits, digitalization can also have significant drawbacks.It may increase digital divides across the system and cause workforce displacement, data and privacy threats, and inequality competition between traditional and high-tech farmers (FAO, 2020).Moreover, it is proposed that the challenges posed by climate change's effects on water supply and intensive farming could potentially become crucial factors for food production in the coming years.Therefore, digitalization is essential for agriculture transformation to ensure economic, environmental, and social sustainability (Hrustek, 2020).
According to Schumpeter's (1934), the stimulus strategy for economic development is innovation.Schumpeter argues that economic development demonstrates technological, organizational, and resource changes, which raise productivity, reduce costs, and establish economic development despite the interceptions of the business cycle and its related economic contractions.Furthermore, Schumpeter defines a classification of innovation that may consist of the novelty concerning aspects of raw material, product, process, market, or organization (Emami-Langroodi, 2017).Several studies, including the notion of innovation by Schumpeter, have inspired agricultural transformation in today's world.The role of innovation in agricultural development has evolved over time in response to sociohistorical conditions and societal demands that have influenced the content (Faure et al., 2018).
In the digital age, innovation offers possible solutions to agricultural challenges, specifically the limited pre-and post-farm information among rural farmers (Trendov et al., 2019).For instance, by using technology it can help the farmers to make better decisions beforehand about their farm operations.Theoretically, asymmetry information occurs when each party has different approaches and access to receiving the information that usually results in welfare inequality.In general, providing farmers with information has traditionally been the primary method of decreasing information imbalances in both developed and developing nations, which enables users to mitigate the downsides of asymmetric information that typically occur during transactions (Anderson & Feder, 2007).Hence, the information, communication, and technology (ICT) innovation can reduce the incidence of asymmetric information and decrease the welfare disparity among stakeholders.Furthermore, empirical research, including quantitative research, surveys, case studies, and consideration of short-term and long-term periods, is crucial to unveil the real impact of ICT transformation on market performance and welfare.With the present challenges in agriculture, the transition to digitalization to mobile phone usage in Africa will serve as a flagship strategy to solve some of the agricultural related problems.Thus, this paper aims to unveil the effects and challenges of ICT focusing on mobile phone usage in agricultural development in Africa.

Methodology
We conducted a systematic literature review by adopting the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) procedure outlined by Moher et al. (2009).PRISMA has been applied in many disciplines such as agriculture and food policy (Tufan Ghosh et al., 2015), environmental studies (O'Leary et al., 2015), public health (Welch et al., 2016), and urban management (Parker & Zingoni de Baro, 2019).
PRISMA's fundamental steps consist of four information analysis pathways.This process includes study identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion in the systematic review (Figure 1).The literature search was limited to only peer-reviewed articles published by academic journals and excluded grey literatures (Appendix 1).We build a syntax search primarily using Web of Science (WoS) as a scientific database and Google Scholar as a supplement (Gusenbauer & Haddaway, 2020).The decision on the Web of Science is driven by its extensive repository of publication metadata and impact indicators (Pranckutė, 2021).
Firstly, we started the identification phase through database searching from WoS using the Boolean search: (("Information" or "Communication" or "Technology" or "ICT" or "Information Communication Technology") and ("Mobile" or "Phone") and ("Farmer" or "Smallholder" or "Small Scale Farmer") and ("Agriculture") and ("Impact" or "Effect" or "Implication" or "Economic" or "Market" or "Input" or "Output" or "Pest" or "Disease" or "Price" or "Strategy" or "Planning" or "Management")) topic search from the time span 2011 to 2021.
A Google Scholar was used as a supplementary source which allows users to locate and read wellknown publications, do a rapid subject search, or skim academic journal articles on any topic.However, the systematic literature search via Google Scholar has a few limitations.To begin with, the use of Boolean operators such as AND, OR, and NOT in Google Scholar searches can be limiting, potentially resulting in the retrieval of irrelevant articles that require further analysis (Bramer et al., 2013).Moreover, Google Scholar lacks a robust quality control procedure and instead collects all accessible data from academic-related websites (Harzing & Alakangas, 2016).Furthermore, the content coverage by disciplines, document types, languages, and countries is not clearly defined, which leads to a lack of transparency, precision, stability, and control (Pranckutė, 2021).In order to deal with these challenges, we used a comprehensive manual search on Google Scholar to expand the scope of our research beyond the articles obtained from the WoS database.

Study approach
The articles should consist of syntax words whether in the title, abstract, or keywords.Although the search algorithm has been managed to identify this characteristic at the beginning, a human cognitive check through manual reading is advantageous as a triangulation step to bolster the scientific approach of a systematic review.

Topic
The articles should address the general knowledge and holistic view of agriculture production.The article should explore any activity in pre-and post-agriculture production.

Time and scope
The article should focus on African countries to expose ICT proliferation in agriculture development.In addition, publications are required to specify the timespan of literature included in their study.

Pre-production
The development of ICT in agriculture interrupts various pre-production agricultural activities.Mapiye et al. (2020) suggests that the infusion of mobile phones can further strengthen the ability of farmers to share information among themselves and help manage their farms well (McCampbell et al., 2018).
Mobile phones can be used to access climate information in order to minimize climate vulnerability and variability effect in Africa.Studies by Henriksson et al. (2021) shows that climate forecast via radio was the primary preference method, whereas Short Message Services (SMS), internet, and WhatsApp were secondary, especially among women.The study also highlights that farmers with a higher level of education are more likely to access forecasts through SMS, WhatsApp, internet, or newspaper.Oyinbo et al. (2020) shows that within Kaduna, Katsina, and Kano in Nigeria, digital tools are being used to support extension agents in decision-making for maize farmers.In this study, they explain that some extension agents prefer to use the effectiveness-related features of decision support tools, such as output accuracy and level of detail, while others prioritize practical aspects, such as tool platform, language, and user-friendly interface.Furthermore, Abdul-Rahaman and Abdulai (2022) suggests that mobile money technology users (digital payment platform that allows for the transfer of money between cell phone devices) outperformed non-technology adopters in Ghana.
Mobile phones are able to provide direct and indirect impacts on the farmers' livelihood.For instance, it simplifies communication among farmer groups and reduces human-elephant-related conflict in Laikipia, Uganda, and minimizes the cost of crop damage caused by elephants (Graham et al., 2012).

Post-production
Information Communication Technology (ICT) in agriculture plays a critical role not only in assisting the smallholder farmers to reach on-farm efficiency, but it stimulates producers to optimize their agriculture products' value such as transferring to retailers, agro-dealers, wholesalers, endusers, or even directly to urban or international markets (Furuholt & Matotay, 2011).Some studies on the use of ICT in agriculture have examined how ICT can facilitate farmers accessing their needs, such as pricing information and producer-buyer relationships (Baumüller, 2012).For example, Oke et al. (2022) shows that other than model factors like age and farming experience, media channels such as television and radio usage in Ogun State, Nigeria, significantly reduced inefficiency and increased technical efficiency in fish production, indicating the possibility of improving fish farming through enhanced access to media channels.Furthermore, the study revealed that fish farmers' access to information communication technology was largely through television and radio to meet their needs (Table 1).
The same study on information communication technologies utilization and profitability of catfish farming suggests that television usage as agricultural media information source contributed to a higher profit gain than non-users among catfish farmers in Ijebu-Ode Zone of the agricultural development programme, Ogun State, Nigeria.Information and Communication Technology tools can be used as an effective way to disseminate the modern research findings and information that increases agricultural livestock and fisheries production to farmers in Africa.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have become an increasingly popular tool to improve market access for smallholder farmers.Krone et al. (2016) highlighted the potential for ICT to address geographic barriers by expanding and maintaining linkages with a wider variety of buyers.This is particularly relevant in countries like Malawi, where smallholder farmers often face challenges in accessing markets due to their remote locations.However, the use of ICT has not always been successful in increasing farmers' participation in markets.In Malawi, for example, the subscription to SMS price alerts for maize farmers had an insignificant effect on their market participation).Despite the potential for ICT to improve market access for smallholder farmers, the main obstacles to their participation in the maize market were identified as price-taker characteristics and the lack of reliable transportation to distant marketplaces (Chikuni & Kilima, 2019).These findings suggest that while ICT can be a useful tool to expand market linkages, other factors must also be addressed to promote increased participation and profitability for smallholder farmers.
Another survey by Nakato et al. (2016) shows that farmers use mobile phones primarily to obtain information for disease management followed by input supplies and market prices.Freeman and Qin (2020) suggest that the majority of cell phone usage is for communicating with buyers regarding pickup schedules, while the utilization of SMS-based agricultural information constitutes the smallest proportion".
The use of mobile-based MIS program has helped farmers in Sub-Saharan African countries to get significantly higher prices for some farm commodities.For example, it received higher prices around 10% for rice and 7% for groundnut than non-participated farmers in the MIS program (Courtois & Subervie, 2015).While in Kenya, mobile phone M-Farm users offer help with price information for post-production processes.However, income gains can also be attributed to changes in cropping patterns and harvesting times (Baumüller (2015).Other mobile-phone-enabled agricultural information services like m-Agri services have revolutionized agriculture and significantly improved smallholder farmers' livelihoods in Africa (Emeana et al., 2020).
In addition, information platforms such as radio, television, and direct communication through mobile phones can improve awareness and use of market channels (Ngarava et al., 2019).Parlasca et al. (2020) recommend the use of mobile phone technologies to enhance dietary diversity, particularly in rural farming areas with limited access to food markets, to address the persistent nutritional challenges in Africa.Freeman and Qin (2020) argue that the willingness to adopt farming inputs is positively correlated with a higher level of ICT literacy and weak-tie or non-relative information sources that allows access to a broader range of information.Alant and Bakare (2021), the level of ICT literacy among female smallholder farmers in Msinga, South Africa, is negatively associated with their age and years of experience, but positively associated with their educational level.They further show that, around 90% of respondents were not able to demonstrate how to use a smartphone to access internet facilities, especially to get weather forecasting information.

Current challenges of ICT development in Africa
The agriculture sector remains vulnerable due to low digital literacy rate compared to other sectors (Figure 2).According to the International Finance Corporation report in selected countries in Africa, not more than 20% of the agriculture sector was digitally skilled in 2019 and is forecast to be below 40% by 2030 (Table 2).
Portable web network condition in Africa is another challenge.In Sub-Saharan Africa, over half a billion individuals in 2020 with versatile broadband systems did not use the portable web, despite significant increments in versatile broadband scope.The web foundation such as the 4G system has reached only half of the population.For example, in a study from some districts in Uganda, merely 6.4% of total 203 research respondents had internet access (Freeman & Qin, 2020)  Source: International Finance Corporation (IFC), 2021.
Several studies have been conducted on the general perceptions of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) infrastructure in different African countries.The following is a brief analysis of some of these studies: According to Corrigan (2020) on Africa's ICT infrastructure, the private sector had, despite some restrictions to its contributions, fared well in constructing ICT infrastructure, and this should be promoted and incentivized.For instance, by taking taxation policies into consideration.Additionally, it is important to identify, prioritise, and incentivize national service providers for investments made in infrastructure projects like fiber expansion in rural Africa.The brief goes on to say that African nations need to improve their capacity for ICT policy in order to respond to changes in the ICT environment, create strong cybersecurity frameworks, and offer predictable business conditions.The study further shows that sub-Saharan Africa had 88.9 mobile phone subscribers per 100 residents covered by a mobile cellular network in 2018, whereas there were approximately 33.8 active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 people covered by LTE or WiMAX network as shown in the Table 3; Only 26.3% of Africans were Internet users in 2018.Table 4 illustrates the wide range of Internet usage among African societies (Corrigan, 2020).
Another study by Bankole Dr and Mimbi (2017), ICT Infrastructure and Its Impact on National Development: A Research Direction for Africa, examined earlier studies and suggested a research pathway for the macro/micro-level effects of ICT on national development on the African continent.They contend further that considering the impact of ICT on development from a national macroeconomic perspective would guarantee the significance of proper planning and strategies that take into account national interventions.These studies suggest that while there has been progress in the development of ICT infrastructure in different African countries, there are still significant challenges that need to be addressed.These challenges include inadequate funding, poor connectivity in rural areas, and lack of regulatory frameworks.Addressing these challenges is essential to ensuring that ICT infrastructure can be effectively leveraged for development and economic growth in the region.Source: (Corrigan, 2020).
Maintaining digital tools is also a financial and economic challenge for the providers.However, users will continuously use digital services if they receive continuously tailored information and benefits (Birner et al., 2021).But, farmers' willingness to pay for the price information largely depends on the cost of service (Baumüller, 2015).Discrepancies in MIS may result in traders readjusting their market strategies.For instance, the online-booking tractor app in Nigeria (Hello Tractor), did not reflect the way the apps work in the field (Courtois & Subervie, 2015).To illustrate that, the farmers booked tractor service through incorrect ways, such as through agents and phone calls which were not effective for both tractor providers and customers (Daum et al., 2021) Furthermore, the challenges in agriculture sector were exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic.For example, in Zimbabwe, agricultural extension services and food supplies were grossly affected (Prosper Bright et al., 2021) and many vendor traders staged protest marches against shutdowns (Willy et al., 2020).Meanwhile, in Nigeria, COVID-19 outbreak negatively affected agriculture production, farmers' income, food access, and dietary intake (Obayelu et al., 2021).From the pandemic, in order to support a shock-resilient food system, African governments will need to find urgent local, context-specific workable solutions.This can be done by promoting resilient technologies and deploying digital technologies, by enacting sound food policies and taking shortto long-term actions like providing quality agricultural inputs for recovery, boosting key supply chain operations, strengthening the food market system, and establishing strong partnership platforms for key players in the food system (Willy et al., 2020).

Discussion
In our review, we assess a range of literature to shed light on how digitalization (ICT mobile phone) usage impacts agricultural development on two major activities: pre-production (on-farm) and post-production (marketing and promotion).We also assess the challenges underlying the adoption and usage of digital tools.The methodological limitations of the existing research sources limited this literature review.The majority of research was conducted in specific locations, and the data used were cross-sectional, hence posing a research gap in the subject matter.
It is evident that digitalization can create a positive impact in Africa, especially that agriculture remains unstable with the fluctuating demand brought by climate change, land degradation, and poor market systems.Source: (Corrigan, 2020).
The use of climate information has helped in lessening the climate threats through preparedness and adaptive mechanism.It provides direction or guidance on how to manage farms efficiently (e.g.disease management), and helps in market linkages.Seemingly, it creates more participation of farmers in the agricultural revolution that we aspire to be in.
Based on the review, we suggest that developing soft and hard infrastructures should be encouraged to improve access to agricultural information through mobile phones.It is undeniable that internet and communication infrastructure in the majority area of Africa has become one of the main obstacles in the digitalization shifting process.Hence, there is a need to invest in hard infrastructure for ICT, such as building reliable power grids and expanding broadband networks for high-speed internet connectivity and increasing access to affordable devices and data centres to support the growing demand for digital services.In this review, we found that radio is still preferred as an information and communication tool by the majority of farmers.Establishing and strengthening the internet network and communication infrastructure in rural areas should be supported by governments.Furthermore, improving soft infrastructures which are basically intangible factors such as policies, regulations, procedures, and cultural norms that shape the behaviour of individuals and organizations is also crucial for Africa.This connects to the low literacy rate among farmers and can be correlated to farmers' age, farm size, training, and availability of resources.Digital illiteracy creates a significant barrier to accessing the benefits of digital transformation, including information, services, and markets, and can further widen existing social and economic inequalities.Therefore, bridging the digital literacy gap is a crucial aspect of any strategy aimed at promoting digital inclusion.Investing in digital literacy programs is one potential solution to this issue, as it can equip individuals with the skills and knowledge to use digital technologies effectively.Digital training skills for both farmers and extension agents can be implemented through various business model options such as business-tobusiness (B2B), business-to-government (B2G), or business-to-consumer (B2C) to increase literacy.
On the one hand, a digital support system improvement will help address the problem of financial flow.The use of the internet can connect farmers with potential investors and lenders, making it easier for them to access finance for their farming activities.The internet can also enable farmers to sell their products directly to consumers through online marketplaces, bypassing middlemen and increasing net profits.On the other hand, it can create competition among service providers when building customer loyalty.Indirectly, this will result in a reduction in government budget expenditure for public digital services and re-allocate the use of donor funding by implementing short project cycles.Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has left an unforgettable lesson on Africa's agriculture sector.These include reduced food production supply, trade disruption, and supply chain issues.From this pandemic, we realize that digitalization offers many benefits and increases resilience, thus offering Africa an opportunity to unravel the full potential of its agriculture sector.Therefore, there is need to strengthen policies at government level that will enable the wide coverage of internet services both in rural and urban areas.This will stimulate the acquisition and usage of mobile phones.
Given the wide range of ICT use and available infrastructure across Africa, the reviewers acknowledge the challenges associated with capturing the current status at the continental level.Some of the challenges associated with this in our opinion include the following:

Insufficient data
A lack of reliable and up-to-date data is one of the primary obstacles to determining the present condition of ICT use in Africa.The majority of African nations lack comprehensive data gathering systems, and the available information is frequently insufficient, erroneous, or outdated.

Diversity
Due to the continent's great cultural, linguistic, and economic diversity, as well as variances in infrastructure, literacy rates, and technological acceptability, it is somewhat difficult to ascertain the general conditions of the ICT and infrastructure in the continent.

Inadequate infrastructure
Many African countries lack the necessary infrastructure to support reliable and affordable ICT services.This is especially true for rural areas, where the availability of basic services like electricity, internet connectivity, and mobile networks is limited.

Political insecurity
The evaluation of ICT usage and infrastructure in certain African nations may be hindered by political instability and conflict, limiting data collection, hindering technology adoption, and delaying infrastructure project construction.

Lack of human resources
The limited number of trained professionals in the information and technology sector in Africa presents a significant challenge, as some countries need more expertise to establish, develop, and maintain ICT infrastructure.This condition may lead to reliance on foreign experts.

Conclusion
This review discusses the effects and difficulties related to using mobile phones for agricultural production in Africa.The article also explores the benefits and challenges of using mobile phones in agriculture, such as improved communication, access to information, and financial services, as well as barriers to adoption, such as access to affordable and reliable networks, and literacy and digital skills.The article further provides recommendations for improving and prioritizing the ICT infrastructure to enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability in Africa.Future studies should maybe pay more attention on providing actionable insights, and recommendations for decision-makers, development experts, farmers, ICT developers, and other actors working to improve agricultural productivity and sustainability in Africa.

Appendix 1: Summary of selected literatures in the review
No.

Figure
Figure 1.Describes the PRISMA process for selecting appropriate papers.

Figure
Figure 2. The average digital skill of people by sector across the five countries in 2019 in Africa.

Table 1 . Distribution of catfish farmers according to sources of information Information source
.