Roles and functions of households along the inland fisheries value chain in the Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province

Abstract This paper investigated the roles and functions performed by rural households along the inland fishery value chain in the Vhembe District Municipality in Limpopo Province. Primary data was collected from 151 fishing and non-fishing households. Descriptive statistics was employed to profile the socio-economic characteristics of households. Pearson Chi-square and Pearson Product Moment Correlation were used to examine the relationship between socio-economic characteristics (gender and age) of households and their function along the inland fisheries value chain. The study found a positive relationship between gender and function of consumer at 1% probability level. In addition, the correlation between age and function of input supplier and consumer were 0.293 and 0.080 respectively. Consequently, the results show that households play the role of input supplier, fishers, processor, trader and consumer. Therefore, the study calls on the government to create an enabling environment that will encourage households to partake in the value chain of inland fisheries to promote rural livelihoods and to encourage women to participate in inland fisheries.


Introduction
Inland fisheries have continued to grow over the past years. For instance, in 2011, about 11.1 million tons of inland fish were produced in the world (Food and Agriculture Organisations ABOUT THE AUTHORS Jenny Potsiso Mokhaukhau is a PhD (Agricultural Economics) candidate at the University of Limpopo in South Africa. Born and raised in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa, Mokhaukhau obtained both her BSc and MSc Agricultural Economics at her current registered university. Her research interests include food security, agricultural risk, rural development. Abenet Belete is a Full Professor (in the field of Agricultural Economics.) at the University of Limpopo. His research interest is Agricultural production, risk analysis in agricultural production and Rural development Johannes Jan Hlongwane is currently serving as Associate Professor and Head of Department of Agricultural Economics and Animal Production at the University of Limpopo, South Africa. He is a PhD holder from the University of Limpopo and have 19 years' experience as academics in the institution of higher learning teaching various modules at undergraduates and postgraduate level in Agricultural Economics (i.e. Microeconomics, Macroeconomics, Agricultural International Economics, Production Economics, Agribusiness, Agricultural Marketing, Agricultural Economic Development, Farm Management, Mathematical Economics, Rural finance, Price Analysis, Managerial Economics and Econometrics) which serves as the research interest.
[FAO], 2016). It then increased to 11.6 million tons in 2016 and 20 million tons in 2018 (Food and Agriculture Organisations [FAO], 2018[FAO], , 2020. This evidently indicates that inland fisheries are an important sector that can contribute to food security and income generation, particularly in developing countries. It was estimated that 90% of people who directly depend on capture fisheries work in smallscale fisheries sector (World Bank, 2012). Therefore, these individuals are undoubtedly employed across the inland fishery value chain.
The current global fishery scale estimated that in 2016, about 59.6 million people were engaged in both capture fisheries and aquaculture either on a full-time, part-time or occasional basis. In addition, 8.3 million of these workers were women (Food and Agriculture Organisations [FAO], 2018). Furthermore, it is reported that in Africa, about 11% of women were employed in both fisheries and aquaculture sectors as compared to 79% and 70% of males employed in fisheries and aquaculture respectively (Food and Agriculture Organisations [FAO], 2018). A survey conducted in South Africa found that only 16.4% of recreational fishers are females while males add up to 76.6% (the remainder being children), particularly within inland fisheries. The primary purpose of recreational fisheries is fishing for leisure, but participants might sell their catch (Ellender et al., 2009). To this end, women play different roles in inland fisheries, marine, aquaculture and recreational fisheries.
The challenge of meeting the expected increase in global population by 2050 stems from feeding and also achieving Sustainable Development Goals (Goals 2, 3, 6, 7 and 15; Funge-Smith & Bennett, 2019). There is, therefore, a need to channel inland fishery value chain benefits for household food security, employment, and income generation, particularly for poor households.
With these being said, the benefits of the fisheries value chain often entail increments of producer share, the minimum cost of processing, increase in efficiency and effectiveness of the actors, boost in business and employment, elimination of unwanted processes such as nonvaluable addition, quality assurance in product development to ensure customer satisfaction (Burch & Maes, 2017;Jeyanthi et al., 2017). Overall, the importance of the fisheries value chain is that it highlights enterprise development, enhances the quality of a product and qualitative measures of value addition, promotes coordinated linkages among producers and improves the competitive position of individual enterprises in the marketplace (Awel et al. 2018). Therefore, the improvement of livelihoods is attached to a broader spectrum of value chain activities.
According to Food and Agriculture Organisations [FAO], 2018), Sustainable Development Goal 1 is dedicated to fisheries and fisheries value chain to support the livelihoods of the poor and vulnerable with inclusive access to fisheries and related economic resources. Despite this information, in developing countries such as South Africa, it is reported that the inland fishery value chain is short and the roles of the actors are not clearly defined Sara et al., 2017). This includes the roles played by rural households along this value chain. It is against this background that the study seeks to: (i) Profile the socio-economic characteristics of households in Vhembe District Municipality (VDM).
(ii) Examine the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of households and their function along the inland fisheries value chain.

Literature review
First proposed by Porter (1985) as a vital tool to better understand all the elements that involve a firm's competitive advantage, value chain analysis helps to better comprehend the activities encompassed in a product or service until it reaches the final consumer. This concept involves a full range of activities that are required to bring a product or service from its conception, through the different phases of production, transformation and delivery to final consumers and eventually to its disposal use (Naji, 2013). That being the case, De Silva (2011) defines a fishery value chain as an interlinkage of value-adding activities that convert inputs into outputs which, in turn, adds to the bottom line and helps to create a competitive advantage. The value chain approach is flexible and comprises all activities that directly or indirectly contribute to the capture, post-harvest processing and marketing of fish (Basurto et al., 2017;Rosales et al., 2017).
Congruently, the fishery value chain differs according to fish, country and region (De Silva, 2011). For instance, fish has many different species that can be prepared in different ways due to the rapid spoil, post-harvest handling, processing, preservation, packaging, storage and transportation. Value chain, in this case, focuses on all the necessary steps that fishery business goes through from raw materials until it reaches the end-user and includes all economic activities and subsectors (De Silva, 2011;World Bank, 2012). Thus, the value chain includes producers, input suppliers, operations, processors, retailers and buyers, and also plays an important role in determining the quality, quantities, prices and timing for the success of the products or services (Kumar & Rajeev, 2016).
In South Africa, fish from the inland water is mostly sold raw or processed. For example, Hara et al. (2021) confirm that in parts of the Jozini Town, women traders sell raw fish to the communities. However, these women purchase fish from fishers who fish at the Pongola Dam. Previously, fishing gear such as fence of reeds with fish trap, bow and arrow, thick bundle of vegetation used as a seine net and a stick with a sharp thorn used as a kind of fishing hook are some of the fishing gears that were used. Currently, households use homemade gear such as fishing rafts, fishing rods, and modern fishing rods and nets to catch fish.
South Africa is known as one of the major countries that thrive in marine fisheries. The country is the largest importer and exporter of fish and fish products in the Southern African Development Community . It is recorded that the country exports 70% of its catch and by far, hake is the most valuable fish produced contributing 40% in value (South African Deep-Sea Trawling Industry Association, 2018; Southern African Development Community-European Union Economic Partnership Agreement, 2017). Additionally, the country exports canned sardines, Anchovies, Horse mackerel, Lobsters and Tuna to various countries such as China, Japan and other Asian countries (Food and Agriculture Organisations [FAO], 2010). Nevertheless, there is no inland fisheries trade in South Africa. This is because the commercial inland fisheries that are similar to marine fisheries do not exist in the country (McCaffety et al., 2012). Several authors have highlighted that fishing households play multiple roles and functions along the fishery value chain. For example, Alemu and Azadi (2018) established that fishing households in Northern Ethiopia play numerous roles as fishers, processors, sellers, and consumers. In a study by Nasr-Allah et al. (2019), three main actors in the fisheries value chain were identified. These included fishers, traders (intermediaries, wholesalers, and retailers) and fish processors. Saagulo et al. (2017) examined factors that influence people's decision to participate in fishery-related activities along the Volta Lake in Yeyi, Ghana. The study found that fishers function as fish harvesters, processors, marketing, fishnet weaving/mending/repairing and fish consumers. In South Africa, Britz et al. (2015) outline that fish production especially aquaculture is predominately performed by women while fish harvesting in the dams and rivers is mostly a male-dominated activity. On the other hand, Hara et al. (2021) identified fishers, processors, fish retailers, wholesalers and fish warehouses as actors in the value chain of inland fisheries in South Africa. Value chain influencers include the Department of Water and Sanitation, South African Police services and South African Maritime Safety Authorities. Saagulo et al. (2017) identified factors that influence people's decision to go fishing. Four main fishery-related activities were identified, that is, fish harvesting, fish trading, fish processing and making/mending nets. As one of the post-harvesting activities, fish processing adds value to the fish and creates employment, especially for women across the globe (Welcomme et al., 2010). In Malawi, it was found that women are fairly integrated into all the nodes and activities of the fisheries value chain (Manyungwa-Pasani et al., 2017). On that account, the value chain of inland fisheries is, therefore, important in identifying opportunities that households can engage in to promote food security, employment and income generation. Moreover, the inland fishery value chain indicates the relationship between fishery management and the users of the inland fishery resources to promote sustainability for current and future beneficiaries.
However, the lack of value addition facilities, storage facilities, market information, skills and knowledge in post-harvest management, poor and inefficient fish preservation techniques, gender discrepancies, and lack of knowledge of benefits and opportunities, constitute some of the challenges that households face in the value chain of inland fisheries (Beran, 2018;Edwards et al., 2014;Manyungwa-Pasani et al., 2017). These challenges tend to shorten the value chain of inland fisheries. Pedroza-Gutiérrez and López-Rocha (2016) proffer that the flow of fish from fishers to final consumers is determined by fish species, where the fish was caught, factors that define the production and distribution forces and mostly, the actors that are involved in this value chain.

Role of women in fisheries
Fisheries is a sector that involves both men and women yet, these roles may be distinct based on various factors. For instance, in Bangladesh, particularly in the Padma River, females are restricted to participate in fishing activities (Sunny et al., 2019). This is because fishing is often seen as a male-dominated activity (World-Wide Fund for Nature United Kingdom [WWF-UK], 2012). Despite these restrictions, according to Food and Agriculture and Organisation [FAO], 2014), women are responsible for most of the time-consuming tasks performed offshore. These include making and mending nets, making buckets, baiting hooks and pots, processing and marketing the fish. Mostly, these activities are rendered as non-paid tasks hence the work of women in fisheries is rarely recognised (Ogden, 2017). Likewise, various studies have reported that the role of women in fisheries is at times undervalued, uncredited and underappreciated by society, policymakers and the fishery sector (Harper et al., 2013). Hence, there is a lack of clearly defined gender roles and responsibilities within fisheries thus, the contribution of fisheries to livelihoods is underestimated.
According to Harper et al. (2020), it is estimated that women roughly account for 2.9 million tonnes of fish and invertebrates, particularly within the production of small-scale inland fisheries. Raemaekers and Sunde (2015) confirm that women in Africa are engaged in both pre-and postharvesting activities. Another study accentuates that women also hire men to fish on their behalf while their role is mostly linked with post-harvesting activities (Limuwa, 2019). Despite these vast contributions of women in fisheries, they are still unrecognised by the community, and policies are gender-biased (Funge-Smith & Bennett, 2019).
Previous studies have reported that not only are women involved in pre-and post-harvesting activities, but they also serve as a source of information, bookkeepers for household fish enterprises, management of fisheries and, practical backup in fisheries (such as picking up fishing equipment and fishing labourers particularly when the spouse is off fishing; Kusakabe, 2002; World-Wide Fund for Nature United Kingdom [WWF-UK], 2012). For example, unlike men, women will fish for almost all seasons since they are responsible for maintaining the household protein food supply. As a result, both men and women play complementary roles in the fishing sector. For instance, it is also reported that women are likely to be involved in fisheries due to the involvement of their spouses in fishing activities hence they play a role in post-harvest activities such as marketing (Suntornratana, 2002). This suggests that women perform a meaningful role in the value chain of fisheries.

Methodology
The study was conducted in the Vhembe District Municipality which is situated on the northern side of the Limpopo Province and is characterised by perennial and non-perennial rivers, flowing into the Luvhuvhu catchment before joining the Limpopo River. Dams such as Nandoni, Nzhelele, Damani, Tshakuma, Mutshedi, Nwanedi, Lupepe, and Albasini provide water for households in the district for domestic and agricultural purposes (Vhembe District Municipality Integrated Development Plan, 2019/2020). Access to fisheries in most of the dams is not controlled and there are no regulations to control fishing activities . Not only do households get water from these dams, but studies such as those conducted by Tapela et al. (2015) indicate that there are fishing activities taking place in most of the dams. However, the fisheries in the study area are mostly small-scale with fishers utilising homemade fishing lines, feed, rods, hooks, baits and buckets . Moreover, most of the households are poor and rely on agriculture and social grants for their livelihoods (Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs, 2020). The district is mostly characterised by rural communities with Tshivenda as the most spoken language. Additionally, the climatic conditions in the district are suitable for the production of different fish species such as Schilbe intermedius, Labeobarbus marequensis and Oreochromis mossambicus (Water Research Commission, 2013).
Ethical clearance to conduct the study was obtained at the University of Limpopo in 2020 (TREC/ 38/2020:PG). Primary data was then collected from 151 households in the Vhembe District Municipality (VDM) in Limpopo Province, South Africa. These samples included households participating in inland fisheries and those not participating however it was discovered that about 5 households do not consume fish. These households were then excluded from the analysis since they do not play any role in the inland fisheries value chain. Thus, analysis was carried out of a sample of 146 households formed part of the inland fisheries value chain. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used to identify the role players of inland fisheries. These sampling techniques were employed due to the unknown number of fishers, input suppliers, fish traders, fish processors and consumers in the study area. The study area is characterised by fishers who produce fish for selling to communities and retailers (Phosa & Lethoko, 2018). Yamane's (1967) formula was used to calculate the minimum sample size: These give a total of 151 households in Vhembe District Municipality.
The study employed descriptive statistics to profile the socio-economic characteristics of households in the study area. In addition, Pearson Chi-square and the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r) were employed to check the relationship between the socio-economic characteristics of households and their roles along the inland fisheries value chain. The Pearson Chi-square was employed to determine the relationship between gender and function of households along the inland fisheries value chain while the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r) was used to examine the relationship between age of households and their function along the inland fisheries value chain.
Pearson Chi-square of independence is used to test the relationship between two categorical variables while r is a test used to measure the strength or the degree of a linear association between variables and their direction. Following Obilor and Amadi (2018), the correlation coefficient thresholds of 0 represent no correlation. On the other hand, r value for the corresponding df (= n-2) should be compared with the tabulated value. If the observed value is greater than the tabulated value at a given probability level, the correlation is significant. Table 1 presents the descriptive results of the study. Of the interviewed households, only 62 participate in inland fisheries. The remainder (89) are non-participants. However, nonparticipating households are viewed as consumers of the inland fishes. As it can be seen from the results, the average age of the interviewed households in VDM is 46. The maximum household size is 14 with an average of 4 household members. These results imply that majority of the The furthest distance travelled by households to the market is 28 km while on average, households are likely to travel 12 km. Despite the long-distance travelled to the market, households involved in inland fisheries are likely to travel a distance of 5 km to the fishing location. With these being the case, households have at least 2 years of fishing experience with an average of 8 years of fishing experience. Households are likely to buy fish at 0.53 USD per kg, which also depends on the type of fish. The minimum quantity of fish sold per year is 0 suggesting that the reason for participating in inland fisheries is primarily for consumption. Additionally, fishing households are likely to sell an average of 131 fish per year. These results suggest that fishing households do not rely on a single location to catch fish but might travel to other municipalities as well thus increasing the amount of fish sold. Table 2 presents the pre-and post-harvesting activities that rural households are involved in. Moreover, it shows the roles and functions of rural households along the inland fishery value chain. It was found that households play multiple roles along the inland fisheries value chain. The roles played by rural households along the value chain include input supplier, fishers, trader, processor and consumer. Input supplying is a pre-harvesting activity identified by the study. In this case, an input supplier sells bait, gear, rods, hooks and nets to fishers. Similarly, an input supplier might loan fridges, boats, and offer transportation to fishers. In addition, the role of an input supplier includes fixing/repairing some of the gears at a cost.

Role players in inland fisheries and related functions
From the post-harvesting activity, the study found that many fishing households play several roles in the value chain. For instance, not only do fishers catch fish, but they also sell raw and processed fish. Moreover, the function of fishers also includes being a price taker and maker, fish consumer and warehouser.
The results in Table 2 also postulate the functions of traders along the inland fisheries value chain in the VDM. The role of traders includes buying fish from fishers, selling to consumers and fish processing. However, some of these traders purchase fish from fishers. About 3 (representing the number of solely fish trades thus 100%) of the identified traders sell processed fish to consumers. Therefore, the main aim of traders is basically to generate income (Kamaylo et al., 2021). Additionally, the role of traders includes selling raw and processed fish and, purchasing fish from fishers. Regarding the function of processors, the study identified 3 processors (represented by the 100%) who solely buy fish from fishers, gut and dry fish and cook the fish to sell to consumers in the local community. This suggests that these fish processors are involved in postharvest activities. These processors also perform the function of traders. Seemingly, there are similar functions played by traders and processors. Fish trading and processing are largely viewed as female activities while males are responsible for the initial catching of fish (Manyungwa-Pasani et al., 2017;Welcomme et al., 2010). Both fishing and non-fishing households play the role of consumers of fish within the value chain. This is because some fishing households primarily catch fish for consumption purposes and also non-fishing households purchase fish either cooked or raw from fishers, traders and processors.

Description of role players characterised by gender
The results presented in Table 3 shows the description of the role players of inland fisheries based on gender. As can be seen, majority of the participants of inland fisheries in VDM are males. Additionally, majority of the males are input suppliers, fishers, traders, processors and consumers. Nevertheless, the study recorded 33% of the females as traders and processors. Although fish is consumed by both males and females, many of the households headed by males consume most of the fish. Relatively, 32% of the females consume fish. These results confirm that the value chain of inland fisheries in VDM is dominated by males. These results also affirm the findings of World-Wide Fund for Nature United Kingdom [WWF-UK], 2012).

Value chain map of inland fisheries in Vhembe District Municipality (VDM)
This section discusses the inland fishery value chain map in the VDM, Limpopo Province. Figure 2 shows the value chain map of inland fisheries in the study area. In this study, inland fisheries activities were identified at both dams and rivers. Mostly, inland fisheries in rural areas are characterised by small-scale, subsistence and recreational fishers. Thus, the value chain of fisheries differs by fish species and location (De Silva, 2011). Therefore, this study provides a general inland fisheries' value chain of the VDM, Limpopo Province. In this study, the main focus of the value chain was the role played by both fishing and non-fishing households.
As shown in Figure 3, the inland fishery value chain in VDM comprises input suppliers, fishers, traders, processors, and consumers. Although fishers are crucial in providing fish, they, however, play multiple roles along the value chain. In essence, these fishers act as households who perform   all functions of the inland fisheries value chain. Moreover, the fishers in the study area mostly catch Tilapia, Carp, Bass and Catfish which are also preferred for consumption. Similarly, Kamaylo et al. (2021) attest that, fishers are the primary actors of the fisheries value chain who catch fish and sell it to other value chain actors. However, these fishers not only perform this task, but also supply inputs, are traders, processors, and consumers. Equally, fishers can purchase inputs such as modern rods and nets at the nearest towns or from local input suppliers.

Consumers
In turn, there are also those households who are purely traders of fish (represented by the 100%). These traders also play the dual role of being processors. Fröcklin et al. (2013) concur with this, stating that traders sell fresh, processed fish to local customers and other markets. These consumers might be those who are involved in inland fisheries (particularly, if they rely on fisheries for food and income) and those who do not participate. Despise this value addition, market access has been identified as one of the challenges that face inland fisheries in rural areas thus value chain analysis assists producers to identify possible markets along the fishery value chain (Hara et al., 2021). To this end, the fisheries value chain in VDM is simple with trade taking place between the role players. Table 4 presents the Pearson Chi-square and Pearson Correlation Coefficient results for Vhembe District Municipality. The socio-economic variables used are gender and age. The Pearson Chisquare shows that there is a relationship between gender and the function of a consumer. On the other hand, there is a positive correlation between the age and function of input suppliers and consumers.

Relationship between gender and function of consumer
The relationship between gender and the function of consumers was estimated. The results show a statistical significance of 1%. The results imply that both male and female fish consumers have similar functions along the value chain. For instance, both might purchase fish from fishers or fish traders. Moreover, the intake of fish is associated with a healthy diet for both males and females (Wennberg et al., 2012).

Correlation between age and input supplier function
The correlation between age and input supplier function was estimated and the results show that there is a statistical significance between age and input supplier function. The results presented a correlation coefficient of r = .293 and p = 0.021. The low correlation might be due to the few input suppliers identified in the study area. The direction of the relationship is positive, which means that these variables tend to increase together. The results imply that as the age of the role player increases, the role player is likely to be responsible enough to take on more functions as an input supplier. For example, age is associated with experience, which suggests that the input supplier might have enough skills to take on more responsibilities in the value chain. However, the lack of skills will result in poor and inadequate input supply for fisheries (Kassam et al., 2017).

Correlation between age and consumer function
The correlation between the age and function of a consumer along the inland fisheries value chain resulted in a positive association. The results show that there is a statistically significant relationship between the age and the function of consumers (r = .336, p > 0.05). The results suggest that as the age of the consumer increases, the likelihood of performing functions such as knowing where to buy fish (different fish markets) also increases. Quagrainie et al. (2009) found a significant relationship between the age of the consumer and the consumption of fish. For instance, the results revealed that consumers prefer inland fish to farmed Tilapia and Catfish. To this end, Quagrainie et al. (2009) established that consumption of fish is significantly dependent on age among other variables.

Conclusion and recommendation
In light of the results of the study, it is concluded that the majority of the households are still in their active stages of life. This means that these households are still able to participate in various inland fisheries activities. Although the distance travelled to the market is short, the distance travelled to the fishing location is longer. This might be attributed to the different locations that fishing households are likely to travel to catch fish. The study also found that the inland fisheries value chain is simple and short although households perform numerous roles along the inland fisheries value chain in the study area. These roles include input supplier, fishers, processor, trader and consumer. The study not only confirmed that inland fisheries is male-dominated but, males also influence the value chain Similarly, various functions are attached to these roles. For instance, a fisher is not only able to catch fish but can also function as a processor and a trader. To this end, socio-economic characteristics such as gender have shown a significant relationship with the function of consumers. Likewise, age has a significant relationship with the function of input suppliers and consumers. These results suggest that the older the household head, the more likely they are to take on more functions as input suppliers thus improving their livelihoods through income generation. Moreover, both men and women serve important roles in the inland fisheries value chain and are likely to play similar functions. With this being the case, the study recommends awareness campaigns that will allow households to benefit from the inland fisheries value chain in the form of income generation and food security. Moreover, the study advocates that, policies which recognise women's involvement in inland fisheries should be developed to encourage improvements of livelihoods, entrepreneurial skills and food security particularly for the female-headed households.