Planned experiments or autonomous adaptation? An assessment of initiatives for climate change adaptation at the local level in Ghana

Abstract There are increasing concerns about the likely impacts of climate change on poverty, economic growth, and the overall development of poor countries. The need to adapt to the daunting challenges posed by climate change has resulted in a multiplicity of responses from various actors across scales. Evidence suggests that at the national and sub-national levels in Ghana, initiatives to address climate change are nascent. The objective of this paper is to uncover the nature of these initiatives, the actors involved and the successes and challenges for achieving sustainable outcomes through local-level interventions in Ghana. The paper adopted the qualitative cross-sectional case study design involving the use of key informant interviews, observations, focus group discussions and institutional reports. The findings suggest that initiatives for adaptation to climate change were largely autonomous since they were not necessarily outcomes from mainstream planning aimed at addressing climate change. Key actors behind the initiatives were governmental institutions, agencies, non-governmental organisations, and community leaders. The paper recommends that further efforts be made to integrate climate change adaptation initiatives at the local level of planning for proper targeting, coordination, collaboration, and sustainable adaptation.


Introduction
The climate change phenomenon has become a painful reality.The World Bank Group (2021) reports that since 1960, temperatures in Ghana have increased by approximately 1°C representing an average increase of about 0.21°C per decade.Additionally, the number of very hot days have risen from about 13% per year, and hot nights by 20% per year.Within the same period, the data show that precipitation in Ghana has been characterised by a high degree of interannual and interdecadal variability culminating in an overall reduction in cumulative rainfall by 2.4% per decade.Projections from the same World Bank report paint a gloomy future for the country.For instance, the country is projected to continue to get warmer and warmer with mean temperatures projected to soar up to 3.0°C by 2050 and 5.3% by 2100.In addition to rising temperatures, precipitation is projected to be highly variable and would continue to be so throughout the century (The World Bank Group, 2021).
Generally, manifestations of climate change in Ghana are felt through the interplay of high temperatures, sea level rise/coastal erosion, erratic rainfall patterns and weather extremes or disasters (Tuebner, 2023; United States Agency for International Development [USAID], 2017; The World Bank Group, 2021).The most fragile ecological zones particularly the coastal and northern savannah parts of Ghana are the worst affected in terms of these impacts (Tuebner, 2023;The World Bank Group, 2021;Yaro, 2010).The coastal zone is home to 25% of Ghana's population and is vulnerable to coastal erosion and tidal waves (USAID, 2017).On average, Ghana loses 2 meters of its coastline annually to coastal erosion and in some areas, the rate of erosion is as high as 17 meters (Abbey, 2023).The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([UNESCO], 2021) reports that coastal erosion and flooding swallowed 37% of Ghana's coastal land between 2005 and 2017.This phenomenon has displaced several coastal communities, destroyed infrastructure and livelihoods.
The Northern part of Ghana is disproportionately susceptible to climate change impacts due to several factors.The region has the highest exposure to temperature increases in the country and by virtue of its location in the Volta Basin is vulnerable to and suffers from riparian flooding (The World Bank Group, 2021).Flooding in the White Volta River Basin has become a perennial affair affecting hundreds of thousands of people and their livelihoods (Li et al., 2022).In addition, the Northern Savanah zone is the poorest region in Ghana and worse of it all, suffers from the worst forms of environmental scarcity due to desertification, deforestation, low and erratic rainfall patterns (Derbile, 2010;Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 2018; The World Bank Group, 2021).These factors, coupled with the over-reliance on rainfed agriculture, create a vulnerability situation that tickles the interest of climate change researchers.Apparently, the situation calls for immediate action to foster sustainable adaptation to the prevailing impacts and to build resilience against future impacts.
The need to adapt to the daunting challenges posed by climate change has resulted in a multiplicity of responses from various actors across scales.Evidence suggests that at the national and sub-national levels in Ghana, initiatives to address climate change are taking place (USAID, 2017;The World Bank Group, 2021, Würtenberger et al., 2011;Yaro, 2010).Surprisingly, the nature of these initiatives and their impacts at the local level in Ghana are yet to be assessed empirically.This paper seeks to uncover the nature of climate change adaptation initiatives at the local level, the actors involved and the successes and challenges for achieving sustainable outcomes in Ghana.

The nature of climate change adaptation initiatives
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change adaptation as the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climate change effects which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC], 2006).Climate change adaptation initiatives, plans and strategies are designed to deal with current and future climate change impacts.They are adaptation schemes (programmes and projects) developed and implemented at the global, regional, national, and local levels for adaptation to climate change (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC], 2023a).Therefore, adaptation initiatives are regarded as means of reducing risks posed by climate change (Adger et al., 2007;Dessai & van der Sluijs, 2007).
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adaptation measures can be classified based on the timing, goal, and motive of their implementation.Adaptation measures thus, are either autonomous or spontaneous and anticipatory or planned (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2007;UNFCCC, 2006).The distinction between planned and autonomous adaptation is that, planned adaptation result from deliberate interventions while autonomous (spontaneous) adaptation occurs not as a result of conscious response to climatic stimuli but is triggered by ecological changes in natural systems and by market or welfare changes in human systems (IPCC, 2007).It has also been argued that, because adaptation is a process, it is important to put into use the existing knowledge, which can be readily appreciated and built upon (André et al., 2021).This makes it imperative to move from autonomous to proactive policies, strategies, and plans.Unfortunately, existing efforts have focused more on capacity building for planning and institutional adaptation to the neglect of local level initiatives.For instance, the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) has identified over sixty (60) adaptation efforts within Africa, all focusing or having a capacity building component (African Ministerial Conference on the Environment [AMCEN], 2010).The emphasis on capacity building was based on the facts surrounding the uncertainty of future impacts of climate change and the need to build capacity for longterm adaptation.Moreover, in many circles, climate change is still considered a "grey" area needing actions to strengthen adaptive capacity (Atanga et al., 2017;Willems & Baumert, 2003).In this context, actions are required to learn what works under which conditions and/or circumstances.Some of these actions include the implementation of National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) projects, which are essential as are an increased coverage of types of projects and sectors.
From the view of Agrawal (2008), adaptation initiatives should begin with understanding current vulnerability, building capacity to support adaptation planning and implementation, learning from pilot actions and deploying strategies and measures to operationalise climate change adaptation in vulnerable regions, sectors and populations.The assessment of current, urgent vulnerabilities has resulted in country-driven priorities that are sufficient to invest in building capacity and pilot actions for climate change adaptation (AMCEN, 2010).There remains a shortfall in the knowledge on the forms of adaptation to be promoted at different spatial scales considering the need to make adaptation initiatives context specific as suggested by several researchers (Agrawal, 2008;AMCEN, 2010;Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2023;Mendelsohn, 2000).
At the global and regional levels, it has been suggested that climate change adaptation initiatives should conform to the notion that adaptation is a process and context specific (AMCEN, 2010;UNFCCC, 2023a).In this regard, adaptation initiatives should be linked to existing policies and development frameworks to ensure holistic development (IPCC, 2023).Addressing initiatives as "standalone" projects can produce adverse consequences for development.For instance, what works as an adaptation solution in one place can produce negative consequences in other places.Apparently, climate change adaptation initiatives should form part of the existing development plans and strategies (e.g., sustainable development or poverty reduction strategies) at sub-national, national and regional levels across different scales (Atanga et al., 2017;Mimura et al., 2014 ).Yet, many of the initiatives aimed at addressing climate change remain fragmented, incremental, sector-specific, and unequally distributed across regions (IPCC, 2023).
Globally, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ([IPCC], 2014) reports that adaptation planning is transitioning from a phase of awareness to the formulation and implementation of actual strategies and plans.So far, over 170 countries and many cities across the world have mainstreamed climate change adaptation into their policies and planning processes (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2022).In its latest report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change specifies that, adaptation planning and implementation are flourishing across all sectors and regions with many success stories (IPCC, 2023).The report, however, raises caveats about emerging gaps in adaptation as well as the occurrence of maladaptation amidst the progress and achievements.These gaps and maladaptation are more pronounced in developing countries and are projected to worsen if nothing is done to bolster current adaptation efforts.It is argued that, for lower-income countries to effectively address these gaps in adaptation and reverse maladaptation, the current global financial flows need to be revised (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2022).The Paris Agreement and its precursor, the Kyoto Agreement acknowledge the gaps in adaptation financing and proposed a rigorous climate change financing regime to facilitate adaptation and mitigation in lowincome countries (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC], 2023b).Empirical evidence from Adonadaga et al. (2022) reveal financial constraints have negatively affected the progress of national climate change adaptation strategies in Ghana.
Adaptation efforts are occurring in Ghana at the national and subnational levels in most of the sectors such as agriculture and food security, water resources, health, urban management, coastal zones, forestry, cities, and tourism.Most of these efforts focus more on planning especially, building adaptive capacity rather than implementing concrete adaptation actions (Atanga et al., 2017).Generally, the delay in adaptation action has been blamed on limited knowledge and capacities (AMCEN, 2010).This includes knowledge pertaining to the identification of climate change events, the need or pertinence for adaptation and perhaps, the what, how, when and who questions about adaptation.
However, in the last decade, significant progress has been made in adaptation policy and planning in Ghana.The 2012 National Urban Policy (currently undergoing review/update) addresses climate change concerns and offers directions for mitigation and adaptation within the urban context.The National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) provides the overall framework for addressing climate change in Ghana.The NCCP focuses on reducing vulnerabilities especially among the most disadvantaged people, sectors, and regions (Food and Agriculture Organisation [FAO], 2023).In order to address the data requirement of national and international bodies, the EPA launched the Climate Ambitious Reporting Programme (G-CARP) in 2013 to support the preparation of national and international reports on greenhouse gas emissions and climate measures including financial and technical support (Nationally Determined Contribution [NDC]-Partnership, 2023).In addition, the National climate change adaptation strategy (NCCAS) and the Ghana National Climate Change Master Plan Action Programmes for Implementation: 2015-2020 were prepared to ensure a consistent, comprehensive and a targeted approach to increasing climate resilience and to reduce the vulnerability of the poor (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction [UNDRR], 2023).
Similarly, Ghana's Fourth National Communication to the UNFCCC captures the latest situation in terms of emission levels, vulnerabilities, mitigation and opportunities for adaptation (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2020) and in the latest Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement, Ghana spells outs its strategies for aligning its policies and development to regional and international requirements for safeguarding the environment and accelerating the implementation of climate actions by strengthening the mobilisation of public, private and grassroots participation (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] & Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation [MESTI], 2021).
Besides, the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) provides guidelines that mandate government Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) and Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) to incorporate climate change into their Medium-Term Development Plans (MTDPs) (Atanga et al., 2017;Musah-Surugu et al., 2018).Evidence show that many ministries are progressively introducing emission reduction strategies while making the efforts to climate proof their plans against the adverse effects of climate change.For instance, the National Transport Policy seeks to contribute towards meeting the country's NDC and mainstreaming climate considerations in the development of transport infrastructure (Ministry of Transport [MoT] et al., 2020) and the Ministry of Works and Housing (MoWH) has tailored its strategies towards achieving climate resilience in the housing sector (Ministry of Works and Housing [MoWH], 2021).In the agricultural sector, government's flagship project (Investing for Food and Jobs (IFJ): An Agenda for Transforming Ghana's Agriculture 2018-2021) has a strong focus on climate change adaptation and increasing climate resilience in agriculture (Ministry of Food and Agriculture [MoFA], 2018).Also noteworthy is the ongoing effort to facilitate private participation in climate change mitigation and adaptation.In line with this, the EPA in 2020 released a Private Sector Engagement Strategy for the National Adaptation Plan.The plan outlines key barriers for private sector participation, considers the role of the private sector in planning and implementing adaptation measures, and identifies key stakeholders in the private sector (EPA, 2020).
The literature shows that at the global, regional, and national levels, significant progress has been made to build institutional capacities for climate change adaptation initiatives.However, several gaps in adaptive capacity remains to be addressed.The review further reveals that Ghana's response to climate change looks impressive from the institutional point of view.In deed, in terms of signature and documentation to meet external requirements of the international architecture, Ghana's response to climate change has been very good (Cameron, 2011).However, the actual impacts of these initiatives on the prevailing vulnerability situation are yet to be ascertained.There are also challenges associated with different collaboration and partnerships that have been initiated through these projects to complement and maximise comparative advantages.In addition, sustainability of existing projects remains a challenge under the prevailing conditions of scarce financial resources.

Conceptualising climate change adaptation initiatives within the context of vulnerability theory
Vulnerability as a concept assumes different meanings in different contexts and disciplines.From the natural hazard's perspective, vulnerability is the risk of exposure of an ecosystem to a climate change-related hazard (Cutter, 1996;Dilley & Boudreau, 2001).In a food security standpoint, Dilley andBoudreau (2001) andFellmann (2012) describe vulnerability as the outcome of a situation such as food insecurity or famine.Vulnerability may also be considered in terms of a starting point and an end point.Vulnerability as a starting point addresses the character, distribution and causes of vulnerability and assumes that future vulnerability conditions can best be addressed by reducing prevailing vulnerability conditions (Dilley & Boudreau, 2001;Kelly & Adger, 2000;O'Brien et al., 2004;Vincent, 2004).Vulnerability as an end point, on the other hand, describes the magnitude of the climate change problem and seeks to quantify vulnerability by considering the net impacts of climate change minus adaptation (Levina & Tirpak, 2006;O'Brien et al., 2004).In effect, as an end point, vulnerability is the residual consequences that remain after adaptation had taken place (O'Brien et al., 2004) expressed mathematically as, Vulnerability = (exposure + sensitivity)-adaptive capacity (EPA, 2021).The model considers adaptive capacity as the main determinant of vulnerability arguing in favour of the capacities and abilities of systems to prepare for and respond to threats (Birkmann, 2013;Cardona et al., 2012;Cutter et al., 2003;Intergovernmental  Approaches pertaining to vulnerability as an end point advocate for the scientific assessment of adaptive capacities of societies to establish the basis and extent of vulnerability (Birkmanna et al., 2022).
Vulnerability may also be considered as internal and external.According to Füssel (2005Füssel ( , 2007) ) and Füssel and Klein (2006) internal vulnerability is the extent to which persons, areas, or events are vulnerable to unfavourable weather changes, whereas external vulnerability refers to the external stressors that a system is exposed to.Vulnerability in this case encompasses both internal and external factors affecting the ability of the system to adapt to changes.
Vulnerability is generally conceived as the extent to which a system is susceptible to, and/or unable to cope with the adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], , 2007).It may also refer to the ability of an individual, group or community to cope with the effects of a hazard (emanating from climate change) or to recover from it (Tompkins et al., 2005).Vulnerability is applied in this paper to mean the degree to which a system is exposed to a climate change phenomenon, how it is affected or will be affected (adversely or beneficially, directly or indirectly) and how it can potentially cope with, recover from and moderate the impacts.Drawing from the above definition, vulnerability to climate change is a function of a system's exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity (Fellmann, 2012;IPCC, 2007).This is the Triple Imagery of Vulnerability (TIV) (Figure 1).The TIV argues that a vulnerable socio-ecological system is one that is exposed to climate change impact(s), is sensitive to the impacts and has a low capacity to cope with or adapt to the impacts.
Exposure in the TIV defines the degree to which a system is in contact with a climate change phenomenon.As Muriuki (2011) puts it, exposure describes who and what is at the risk of climate change.This could be an entire ecosystems, sub-systems, or elements within a system: flora, fauna, persons, groups or infrastructure and many others.Exposure to climate change and its associated impacts varies from one location to another.The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2023) reports that increases in global warming is usually associated with widespread and pronounced regional changes in mean climate and extremes.In Ghana, The World Bank Group (2021) observed significant differences in changes in climate and climate extremes across different ecological zones with the northern savanna part of Ghana being the worst affected.The fact that people and places are exposed disproportionately to climate change phenomena suggests that initiatives for climate change must be based on contextual realities.

Atanga (2014).
Sensitivity describes the extent to which a system is affected by climate change impacts which can be adversely or beneficially, directly or indirectly (IPCC, 2007;Kelly & Adger, 2000).The characteristics of a system determine its sensitivity to climate change stressors and vary across different places, systems, sectors and people.For instance, agricultural systems that are raindependent is more sensitive to drought than one that has access to irrigation facilities.Ghana's sensitivity to climate change is considered high due to high dependence on nature-based livelihoods (EPA, 2021).Rainfed and subsistence agriculture remains the main source of livelihood for over half of the population of Ghana (EPA, 2021;GSS, 2018;Tuebner, 2023;The World Bank Group, 2021).
Adaptive capacity defines a system's ability to withstand climate change and its associated extremes, to moderate impending harms and to exploit emerging opportunities (IPCC, 2007).It is argued that adaptive capacity is the overriding element of vulnerability due to its ability to water down the effects of exposure and sensitivity (Birkmanna et al., 2022;Fellmann, 2012;Gallopin, 2006).The adaptive capacity of a system is greatly influenced by its access to and control of human (knowledge of climate risks, technology, conservation agricultural skills, good health to enable labour, etc.); physical (irrigation infrastructure, seed and grain storage facilities, etc.); natural (reliable water source, productive land, etc.); political (policies, institutions and power structures, etc.); social (women's savings and loans groups, farmer-based organizations, stable and effective institutions, etc.) and financial (micro-insurance, diversified income sources, etc.) resources (Atanga, 2014; Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere, Inc [CARE] International, 2010; Dazé et al., 2009;EPA, 2021;Napogbong et al., 2021).In the realm of climate change, adaptive capacity and adaptation are knottily related such that adaptive capacity is considered as a limit beyond which adaptation is no longer possible.Levina and Tirpak (2006) described adaptive capacity as the limits of adaptation or coping range within which adaptation can occur.
It is brazenly clear that the quantity, quality and control of resources for adaptation is crucial for increasing adaptive capacity and reducing vulnerability.Unfortunately, the access to and control of the resources necessary for building adaptive capacity varies within countries, communities and even households.Generally, poor countries or societies have low adaptive capacities because they lack the resources needed to promote adaptation (Birkmanna et al., 2022).In the same way, vulnerable and marginalised persons such as women and migrants equally have low adaptive capacities owing to poor access to vital resources required for adaptation (CARE, 2010;Dazé et al., 2009;Yaro, 2010).
There is a growing acceptance that sustainable adaptation will greatly depend on the ability of planning regimes to respond to the growing need to increase the adaptive capacities of communities and groups to cope with the daunting challenges of climate change.The IPCC (2014; 2023) has emphasised the need for a cross-scale adaptation planning to address the diverse needs of society.It is further argued that sustainable development outcomes under climate change are the products of planned adaptation processes (Atanga et al., 2017).Consequently, development policies, plans and strategies developed within a multi-stakeholder environment can potentially increase the adaptive capacity of societies, reduced exposure through long-term mitigation efforts and reduce sensitivity by increasing adaptive capacity (Figure 2).Planned adaptation initiatives are more focused, targeted and more impactful and therefore hold the key to sustainable adaptation in resource poor settings.Admittedly, this will require a concerted effort and commitment from global, regional, sub-regional, national and sub-national stakeholders (Figure 2).Apparently, autonomous adaptation measures and the fire-fighting approach to the climate change menace is untenable under the current circumstances and will have disastrous consequences in the future.Intergenerational analysis of the climate of the district shows a significant increase in temperature over a generation with negative consequences on economic and social life (Atanga, 2014).This is backed by scientific evidence from Apuri et al. (2018) that shows that temperature in the KNWD has increased at an average of between 1.1°C to 1.6°C over a period of 30 years.The district experiences an average rainfall of about 921 mm with a range of between 645 mm and 1250 mm (Ministry of Food and Agriculture [MoFA], 2023).The district has a unimodal rainfall regime of about 5 to 6 rainy months from April/May to September/October and a dry season lasting for 6 to 7 months from October to April (KNWDA, 2018).A study by Yaro indicates that the rainfall regime of the district has gone through significant changes from less variations in the 1960s to higher variations between the 1980s and 1990s (Yaro, 2004).This is corroborated by a recent study by Apuri et al. (2018) which reports of declining rainfall patterns in the district.These changes have dire consequences on the lives and livelihoods in the district that largely depend on the natural environment.

Overview of the vulnerability context
The district forms part of the Birimian and Granitic rock formation with generally low-lying and undulating relief characterised by isolated hills rising up to 300 meters in the Western part of the district (KNWDA, 2018).The district lies within the White Volta Basin and is mainly drained by the Sissili, Asibelka, Atankwide and Anayere rivers and their tributaries.These rivers dry up in the dry season but flood at the peak of the rainy season (usually August-September).The Sudano-Sahelian climatic condition has influenced the open grass vegetation that dominates the area with patches of dense vegetation along river basins and forest reserves.The vegetation of the district is largely of the Sahel Savanna ecoregion composed of a mosaic of short grasses, trees, and scrubs (KNWDA, 2018).Common economic trees in the district include the shea, dawadawa, baobab, mango, nim, and acacia.Human activities (particularly farming, overgrazing, logging, sand winning, etc.) have impacted negatively on the vegetation cover leading to deforestation and the emergence of dissert conditions (KNWDA, 2010).The common soil type in the district is the Savanna Ochrosols which are inherently low in fertility (Apuri et al., 2018;Awuni et al., 2023;KNWDA, 2018).
The district has a population of 90,735 out of which 43,909 males and 46,826 females (KNWDA, 2018).The Kassenas and the Ninkarisi (called Nankana by the Kassenas) are the two dominant ethnic groups in the district.The Kassenas speak Kasem whilst the Ninkarisi speak Ninkare (also called Nankam by the Kassenas).Agriculture is the dominant economic activity in the district with about 81.7 percent of the population engaged in agricultural-related activities.The state of agriculture is largely rainfed with pockets of dry-season gardens along riverbanks and dugouts.Over time, the fortunes of agriculture has dwindled considerably, leading to high levels of poverty, food insecurity, outmigration and unemployment particularly among women.The district has high potentials in ecotourism, art, and music.For instance, the crocodile ponds in Paga as well as pottery and traditional murals in Sirigu are internationally recognised tourist attractions (KNWDA, 2018).However, these economic potentials face existential threats from climate change impacts.
The profile of the KNWD shows a clear vulnerability situation in the face of climate change threats.The district is disproportionally exposed to multiple climatic threats such as floods, droughts, and windstorms (Apuri et al., 2018;Atanga, 2014;KNWDA, 2018;Yaro, 2004).Additionally, the district mainly depends on rainfed agriculture thus, making it highly sensitive to the prevailing climate change impacts.The district also experiences high levels of poverty, which shows that the level of adaptive capacity is low.Drawing from the Triple Imagery Vulnerability (TIV) framework, the KNWD provides the peculiarities in terms of exposure to climate change and typicality in terms of sensitivity and adaptive capacity for the study of vulnerability and adaptation measures.

Methodology
The paper adopts a qualitative approach cross-sectional case study design for the analysis of climate change adaptation initiatives in Ghana.The qualitative approach is widely used in social science because of its propensity to address the why and how issues that typify much of social phenomena (Berg, 2001).The approach incorporates the ontological notion of multiple truths and multiple realities (Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2013).Thus, in a phenomenon such as climate change; individuals perceive its occurrence and effects in different ways that mirror their worldviews.The qualitative approach exemplifies the researcher as the main instrument of data collection instead of the manipulation of inert objects using questionnaires, machines or inventories.The approach requires direct contact between the researcher and the subjects of the study in natural settings, sites, or institutions to observe or record behaviour or events.
Drawing from the qualitative approach, the paper adopted a cross-sectional case study design.The Kassena-Nankana West District constitutes the case for the study from which analytical generalisation will be made and implications drawn for the rest of Ghana.The case study method was chosen because of its procedural adroitness that provides the means for a systematic analysis of events, data collection, data analysis and reporting the results.The method embraces depths of insights of the research problem and encourages the deployment of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools that promote interaction and dialogue between researchers and respondents (Bell, 2004;Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2013;Kumar, 1999).These exceptional qualities of case study as a method of inquiry warrant its use for the analysis of climate change adaptation initiatives.The method was helpful in aiding the in-depth assessment of climate change adaptation initiatives from multiple perspectives.
Data was collected from multiple sources; secondary sources (reports and publications) and primary sources (discussions, observation and interviews).Data from secondary sources was sourced from District Medium Term Development Plans (DMTDPs), District Annual Action Plans (DAAPs), composite budgets and monitoring/progress reports.Documents covering three planning periods 2010 to 2013, 2014 to 2017 and 2018 to 2021 were considered.The main methods of collecting primary data were Key-informant Interviews (KIIs), Focused Group Discussions (FGDs) and observation.KIIs were held with five (5) district assembly staff, six (6) heads of decentralised institutions and agencies, heads of Water Resources Commission (WRC) and EPA, project officers of 2 NGOs and five (5) assembly members.The KIIs proved useful in obtaining qualitative data about respondents' views, perceptions and experiences about climate change and adaptation responses to prevailing impacts.Additionally, observation was used to assess the conditions of the initiatives to ascertain first-hand information regarding their prospects for adaptation and sustainability.
The FGDs were conducted with area council members.In all, seven (7) FGDs were conducted.The total number of participants for the FGDs was 58, comprising 10 in Nakong, 5 in Katiu, 7 in Navio, 9 in Chiana, 7 in Paga, 11 in Sirigu and 9 in Mirigu.Respondents for both IDIs and FGDs were purposively sampled (based on their position as leaders and their foreknowledge of initiatives in the district and/or in their communities.
Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data manually.First, the interviews and discussions were recorded, transcribed, read through and important content extracted and organised into themes generated from the interview and discussion guides.Analysis of secondary data followed the same procedure.Lastly, common ideas, topics, and quotes in each theme were further summarised, discussed and interpreted.

Introduction
The purpose of the paper was to uncover the nature of climate change adaptation initiatives, the actors involved and the successes and challenges for achieving sustainable outcomes through local level interventions in Ghana using the Kassena-Nankana West District as a case study.This section presents results of the analysis which include initiatives pursued by communities, organisations, and the District Assembly.The initiatives are categorised into six themes namely, integrated soil and land management, natural vegetation management, integrated water resources management, education and awareness raising, improved seed varieties and animal breeds, and promotion of alternative livelihoods.

Integrated water resources management
The integrated water resources management (IWRM) initiative aims to promote positive environmental practices which are crucial for the improvement of community water resources management.The initiative utilises a participatory and inclusive process for planning and executing water resources conservation while developing initiatives that address the social and economic needs of beneficiaries.Specific initiatives pertaining to the IWRM in the Kassena-Nankana West District were woodlots and buffer zone system.
With the buffer zone system, trees were planted along the margins of a river or the catchment area of a dam or dugout to serve as a buffer or barrier between the water resource and human activities, particularly farming.The creation of the buffer zone maintains the ability of the water resource to retain water and maintain its integrity.The study identified two types of trees used for the buffer zone projects.These were fruit trees (e.g., Kandiga, Katiu, Batiu, Pingu, Nyangania and Kayoro) and woodlots (e.g., Nakong project).The trees for the woodlots were mainly acacia and teak trees.The fruit trees were mango trees, examples of which were the Kandiga and Buru-Kazugu projects (see Figure 4 and 5).
The Kandiga Project was a collaborative initiative between the District Assembly on one hand and the Kandiga Chief, Naba Henry Abawine Amenga-Etego II and the Azeadumah Community in Kandiga on the other hand.The project run on a shared arrangement in which the assembly supplied the mango seedlings and fenced the area, Azeadumah community supplied labour for planting and maintenance of the plantation.The proceeds of the plantation (fruits) when harvested, were to be shared between the assembly and the Azeadumah community according to an agreed ratio.The project is an income generating activity which is expected to benefit both the KNWDA and the Azeadumah community while maintaining the dam.Thus, the project is integrative, participatory, and comprehensive and has high potentials of sustainability.
The Buru-Kazugu component of the IWRM initiatives was a community-based project implemented by EPA through the Ghana Environmental Management Project (GEMP) and funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).Pivotal to the success of the project was the Buru-Navio Chief, Pe Adam Kwarasei II who happen to be an environmental enthusiast and managed to galvanise sufficient support and the cooperation of his community on one hand and the funding partners on the other hand.The project involves the duo of tree plantation and potable water supply (see Figure 5).The Buru-Kazugu community was responsible for the maintenance of the plantation which include planting, watering, and pest control.The EPA provides the seedlings and water infrastructure.Field observation revealed that the plantation was not properly taken care of as the community members reneged on their responsibility.For instance, the trees were left to wither, and the solar-powered mechanised component of the borehole had broken down.It was revealed during the FGDs that the caretakers abandoned the plantation for lack of remuneration.

Education and sensitization programmes
Sensitization and education projects were conducted by district-and regional-level organisations on environmental and climate change awareness.Prominent among these initiatives was the annual environmental education and awareness programme organised by the EPA with emphasis on drought and desertification.Document review results show that the EPA between 2013 and 2017 sensitised over eleven (11) communities in the Kassena-Nankana West District on environmental management and conservation.So far, over 3,000 people have benefitted from the campaign.Additionally, the EPA has formed and trained environmental clubs in senior high schools within the district in order to further its sensitization drive.Another awareness and education project by EPA was radio programmes.The radio sensitization programmes were run on four (4) local radio stations (URA Radio, WORD FM, Radio Builsa and Radio A1) in English, Kasem, Buili and Gurune languages.
The District Assembly, World Vision Ghana, Water Resources Commission and Organisation for Indigenous Initiatives and Sustainability (ORGIIS) also organised periodic sensitization programmes on environmental awareness.In particular, the Water Resources Commission (WRC) has erected giant billboards along the Paga-Bolgatanga Highway to raise awareness about climate change.One of these billboards was planted close to the Anayire's bridge along the Paga-Bolgatanga road.

Alternative livelihoods projects
The alternative livelihood projects identified in the study were training of women groups on shea butter extraction, soap and pomade making, weaving, bee keeping, baobab seed oil extraction as well as provision of credit to women.The EPA, World Vision Ghana and ORGIIS were involved in these activities.The EPA through GEMP with funding from CIDA championed an integrated beekeeping project in Nakong in the western part of the district (see Figure 6).The project aims to protect the environment by controlling the menace of bush fires, indiscriminate felling of trees and charcoal production.
ORGIIS and World Vision Ghana also organised trainings for women on shea butter extraction, soap and pomade making, weaving and baobab seed oil extraction.In addition, revolving loans were provided to women groups to support petty trading and other forms of businesses.The essence of these initiatives was to empower women to overcome poverty and thus, reduce their dependence on fuelwood harvesting and other destructive environmental practices.

Improved seed varieties and animal breeds
The main aim of the improved seed varieties and animal breeds was to increase the resilience of farmers against the impacts of climate change.KIIs with the District Agricultural Development Unit (DADU) revealed that the local crop varieties and livestock breeds were performing poorly because of climate change.In particular, the local millet varieties, early millet (naara) and late  millet (zεa) as well as guinea corn take a longer duration to mature and are sensitive to drought and heavy rainfall.To remedy this problem, early maturing maize and climate resilient varieties such as pioneer, kapala dorke and panar 53 were promoted and introduced to farmers.However, the intervention was not helpful to many farmers because majority of the farmers do not crop maize.Besides, the maize seeds were costly and required the use of fertilizer for which farmers had no money to buy.During the FGDs, discussants, particularly those in the eastern part of the district (Sirigu and Mirigu area councils), revealed that they prefer millet and guinea corn.Unfortunately, DADU had no improved seeds for the local millet and guinea corn varieties.Some discussants alluded that some years back, improved varieties of guinea corn known locally as agric were introduced in the area, but farmers rejected them because they disliked the taste.
The study found that there were no improved varieties of livestock by DADU for farmers' adaptation.Nevertheless, DADU encouraged farmers to adopt improved breeds of sheep, goats and cattle from Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger.DADU had also made progress in guinea fowl breeding, the results of which is the fast growing and weightier Belgium breed of guinea fowls.The existence of the new breed of guinea fowls was however, not known to many farmers and therefore not widely adopted.During the FGDs, discussants, particularly in Mirigu and Sirigu, expressed their lack of awareness about the improved breeds of guinea fowls.Discussants and key informants indicated that many farmers in their areas travel to Zebilla in Bawku West District to buy improved breeds of guinea fowl chicks for rearing.

Integrated soil and land management
Integrated soil and land management were initiatives pertaining to agronomic practices aimed at reducing soil nutrient depletion and soil erosion through measures such as zero burning of plant residue, minimum/zero tillage, contour ploughing, chemical and physical changes, maintaining plant residue on the farm as well as the preparation and use of compost.Other measures were zero grazing for livestock through the harvesting of animal feed, creating community pastures, controlled grazing and discouraging the keeping of large flocks.These initiatives were part of African Development Bank (AfDB) and World Bank pilot programmes on sustainable land and water management.The initiatives were not conceived, planned, and implemented by the KNWDA and can best be described planned experimental projects from external organisations.

Farmer-managed natural vegetation regeneration
The natural vegetation regeneration initiatives identified by the study were in two ways: community managed afforestation through shrub pruning and agroforestry.The shrub pruning is described in Ninkare (spoken by the Ninkarisi) and Kasem (spoken by the Kassena people) as tintuori lebike tia and vokogo mo geri tio respectively (See figure 7).Both the shrub pruning, and agroforestry were implemented by World Vision Ghana and ORGIIS.The project officer of ORGIIS explained that the logic behind the shrub pruning was that, as the climate changes, the vegetation also undergoes natural changes such that more adaptable plant species emerges to replace the less adaptable ones.He further argued that it was much easier to allow the climate tolerant species to grow naturally and improve the vegetation than to plant new trees.The process is cheaper because it does not involve the buying of seedlings, planting cost, watering, fencing and other forms of maintenance identified by Apuri et al. (2018) as challenges to tree planting in the area.This intervention is a clear recognition of indigenous cultural adaptive practice supported by World Vision Ghana and ORGIIS.
The agro-forestry practices involved the growing of Acacia albidia trees on the farm.Acacia albida is a deciduous tree which drops its leaves at the onset of the rainy season.The leaves rapidly decompose to release nutrients at the time when young plants need them most.The tree remains leafless and does not cast enough shade to adversely affect crops grown beneath.The tree is grown naturally in the area and the project only discourages farmers from felling them.It is widely used in agroforestry projects (Apuri et al., 2018;Garrity et al., 2010).

Discussion
The paper sought to uncover the nature of climate change adaptation initiatives at the local level in Ghana.The results show that a number of initiatives are taking place which have direct and indirect implications for climate change adaptation.These initiatives included integrated soil and land management, natural vegetation management, integrated water resource management, education and awareness raising, improved seed varieties and animal breeds, and alternative livelihood promotion.Key actors behind the initiatives were the District Assembly, government agencies (EPA and WRC), community leaders, and environmental NGOs.The initiatives achieved modest successes and some challenges as well.Majority of these initiatives were not implemented with the aim of addressing climate change and therefore can be described as autonomous.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), autonomous or spontaneous adaptation occurs in response to changes in ecological or natural systems as well as changes in human systems pertaining to market or welfare systems.However, the results of the study indicate that the autonomous initiatives were implemented not for market or welfare consideration but for ecological changes in natural systems such as land degradation, desertification, soil infertility and deforestation.This was particularly the case with initiatives from the district assembly which were mainly in response to environmental concerns and not necessarily climate change.One reason for this situation is poor knowledge about the differences between climate change and environmental concerns which has been identified by Atanga et al. (2017).Albeit some of the environmental concerns are invariably linked to climate change, they cannot be considered as climate change initiatives especially when viewed from the triple-imagery conceptualisation of climate change in a vulnerability context.Ideally, initiatives for addressing climate change should be informed by analysis of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity just like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), Levina and Tirpak (2006) and Fellmann (2012) have stated.This apparent misconception has resulted in misalignment of adaptation measures pursued in the district.For instance, while the district suffers from high temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, flooding, windstorms, and droughts (Apuri et al., 2018;Atanga, 2014;KNWDA, 2018;Yaro, 2004), the proposed strategies for addressing these concerns were mainly tree planting and buffer zone protection of water resources.This is a clear case of untargeted intervention which has the tendency to create adaptation gaps, widen poverty and lead to maladaptation similar to what File et al. (2023) have observed among farming communities in northern Ghana.Globally, evidence suggests that the climate change situation has reached an unprecedented level and there is the need for urgent action to foster adaptation across levels and sectors (IPCC, 2023).Additionally, there appears to be consensus among scientists that sustainable adaptation will greatly depend on the ability of planning regimes to respond to the growing need for adaptation across scales.It is also widely argued that autonomous adaptation measures, the business as usual, and the fire-fighting approach to adaptation will produce disastrous consequences in poor communities in a worsening climatic situation.Unfortunately, the results of the study suggest that experimental measures that potentially support adaptation to climate change are nascent at the local level in Ghana, yet largely autonomous and the process of formalisation infantile.Drawing from this finding, adaptation planning and implementation are not flourishing across many sectors and regions as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2023) has posited.
Similarly, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2014) reports that adaptation planning is transitioning from a phase of awareness to the formulation and implementation of actual strategies and plans.In its 2022 report, the IPCC states that over 170 countries and many cities across the world have mainstreamed climate change adaptation into their policies and planning processes (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2022).The study results support the view that adaptation planning is ongoing at the local levels as local authorities make efforts to incorporate climate change into locals plans as a cross-cutting issue.However, the study reveals that there are yawning gaps in knowledge of climate change among local authorities and communities.Although, sensitization programmes were still being carried out by state and non-state actors aimed at improving local knowledge and understanding of climate change, critical gaps in the awareness and knowledge of climate change as a concept in the local context still persist.This was reflected in the conception of climate change as an age-old environmental issue such as desertification and not a new phenomenon needing urgent action.Agrawal (2008), African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN, 2010), Mendelsohn (2000) as well as Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2023) have observed similar knowledge gaps about climate change.Therefore, there is the need to water down the concept of climate change to local contexts for a holistic conceptualisation of the concept in order to appropriately link local initiatives to national and global goals.In this light, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ([UNFCCC], 2023a) has advocated for a two-way linkage between local and global actions for sustainable adaptation to climate change.
The results also highlight the issues of coordination of climate change adaptation initiatives and collaboration among key actors as necessary conditions for sustainable adaptation.Good coordination of climate action is important for building synergies and sharing experience for successful adaptation planning and implementation.Yet the findings show that, there was less coordination of adaptation initiatives in the district and less collaboration between and among actors involved in the initiatives.For instance, initiatives from NGOs, and some decentralised departments and agencies were neither captured in the district plans nor coordinated by the district assembly.This finding is consistent with the IPCC's assertion that many of the initiatives aimed at addressing climate change are fragmented and incremental (IPCC, 2023).Poor coordination and collaboration have the tendency to create duplication of interventions and waste scarce resources in an urgent time of need.However, at the community level, there was evidence of the active involvement of key stakeholders particularly chiefs.The participation of chiefs and community members in some of the initiatives hold the prospects for fostering sustainability of the initiatives.Overall, initiatives implemented by NGOs had the greater promise of sustainability due to their ability to promote community participation and ownership.According to Qader (2023) leveraging the support of local actors for adaptation initiatives is crucial for the success of adaptation actions.Similarly, the need to make adaptation measures context specific through the engagement of local stakeholders further exemplifies the role of local actors in climate interventions just as Agrawal (2008), African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN, 2010), Mendelsohn (2000) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2023) have stressed.
The findings also revealed gaps in access to critical resources required for adaptation such as farm inputs.The results show that farmers lacked access to improved seed varieties and animal breeds needed for adaptation to climate change.Bruins (2009) as well as Amole and Ayantunde (2019) have stressed that food security in a changing climate is invariably a seed and breed security issue.Consequently, the access to, and utilisation of improved seeds are vital for adaptation to climate change among farm households.Unfortunately, Hampton et al. (2016) Thompson and Gyatso (2020) and Mbatia (2022) have shown that sub-Saharan Africa still lacks behind in terms of access to and use of improved seeds for adaptation despite the explosion in the growth of the seed industry globally.In Ghana, the passage of the Plant Breeders' Bill in 2013 was to facilitate the proliferation of improved seeds in the country as noted by Poku et al. (2018) and Quarshie et al. (2021).However, institutional limitations, financial constraints and poor knowledge of farmers' needs still militate against farmers' access to improved seeds in Ghana (Quarshie et al., 2021).These bottlenecks need to be addressed within an integrated framework on climate smart agriculture to engender community resilience and sustainable adaptation.
In resource poor contexts, measures that increase adaptive capacity are crucial for building resilience and promoting adaptation to climate change impacts.Gallopin (2006), Fellmann (2012) and Birkmanna et al. (2022) have exalted the need to increase adaptive capacity as an overriding element in reducing vulnerability because of its ability to mitigate the effects of exposure and sensitivity.In this regard, the alternative livelihood projects that were promoted by international agencies and environmental NGOs are highly relevant for promoting community resilience and adaptation.Even gratifying is the case that these alternative livelihood schemes were targeted at empowering women who are disproportionately vulnerable to climate change impacts.The likes of Adger et al. (2007), Dessai and van der Sluijs (2007) and Beltrán-Tolosa et al. (2022) have all argued in favour of livelihood diversification and alternative livelihoods as means of facilitating climate change resilience.

Conclusion and recommendation
The study sought to uncover the nature of climate change adaptation initiatives, the actors involved and the successes and challenges for achieving sustainable outcomes through locallevel interventions in Ghana.The findings suggest that initiatives for climate change adaptation at the local level in Ghana are nascent.These initiatives cut-across diverse areas including, inter alia, integrated water resource management, education and sensitization, alternative livelihoods, improved seed varieties and animal breeds, integrated soil and land management and farmermanaged natural vegetation regeneration.The initiatives were implemented by diverse stakeholders such as the District Assembly, Environmental Protection Agency, Water Resources Commission, environmental NGOs, community leaders and international development agencies.Coordination among these stakeholders regarding the initiatives was poor as the District Assembly failed to integrate and monitor the implementation of initiatives such as the farmer-managed natural vegetation regeneration and the agroforestry projects.The rationale behind initiatives such as integrated soil and land management, farmer-managed natural vegetation regeneration was to respond to the menace of land degradation but with direct benefits in terms of adaptation to climate change.Consequently, the initiatives identified in the study were largely autonomous adaptations as they were initiatives implemented by diverse stakeholders with varied motives and objectives other than climate change.
The findings further revealed that adaptation strategies initiated by the NGOs and implemented by the local communities have better prospects of being sustainable than those under the supervision of the district assembly.The paper recommends that, further efforts be made to integrate climate change adaptation initiatives at the local level of planning for proper targeting, coordination, collaboration and sustainable adaptation.
Kassena-Nankana West District was chosen for the study.The District lies approximately between latitude 10.74° and 11.03° North and longitude 0.88° and 01.53°West in the Upper East Region of Ghana (Kassena-Nankana West District Assembly [KNWDA], 2018).It shares border with Burkina Faso to the North, Bolgatanga Municipality and Bongo District to the East, Sissala East, Builsa North and South Districts to the West and Kassena-Nankana Municipality to the South (KNWDA, 2018)see Figure 3.The district has a total land area of 1,004 sq.km which is predominantly rural with 134 major settlements.The height of the area is 1000 metres above sea level and forms part of the Sudano-Sahelian climatic zone which features a relatively long dry and short wet season (Kassena-Nankana West

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Figure 2. Conceptual framework for climate change adaptation.Author's Construct

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Figure 6.Alternative livelihoods projects -bee keeping project in Nakong.