Comparing the adaptive capacity of traditional irrigated rice fields farmers in urban and rural areas to climate change in Bali, Indonesia

Abstract The irrigated rice fields are multifunctional in sustainable development but are vulnerable to climate change. The current study is intended to analyze traditional irrigated rice field farmers’ adaptive capacity and formulate the strategies needed to strengthen it. The study was conducted in subaks located in Badung Regency, Bali’s urban and rural areas.The sample of the subak areas and the sample of the farmers were determined by multistage sampling.The data were obtained through a semi-structured and questionnaire-guided interview and were analyzed using the sequential explanatory mixed methods. Index-indicated numeric and local specific variables and dimensions measured the adaptive capacity of the farmers. The results of the study show that the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area is better (high level) than that of the farmers in the urban area. The critical node of the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area is situated on the economic and human dimensions. In contrast, the critical node of the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the urban area is situated in the cultural, social, human, and physical-natural dimensions. Five strategies and several activities relevant to what to do to strengthen the adaptive capacity of the farmers in each area are formulated. The commitment and role of the government as the policymakers, and the support from the other stakeholders, is crucial to strengthen the farmers’ adaptive capacity.


Introduction
Irrigated rice fields play a vital role in Indonesia's agricultural system as they supply rice as the staple food for most of its population (Ariani et al., 2021;Sekaranom et al., 2021).Indonesia is the biggest rice producer in Southeast Asia, with a production of 34.90 Mt (Million tonnes), followed by Thailand and Vietnam, and the fourth-largest country in the world, followed by China, India, and Bangladesh (Tirtalistyani et al., 2022;USDA, 2022).Java Island and Bali Island have the broadest areas of irrigated rice fields.In 2019, the irrigated rice fields totaled 3.3 hectares, or 42.40% of Indonesia's total irrigated rice fields (Hidayati & Faiz, 2021).However, in the last decade, Indonesia's agricultural sector, especially food crop agriculture, has been seriously threatened by global climate change (Case et al., 2022;Ikhwali et al., 2022).The climate elements, especially the air temperature and the rainfall pattern, have shifted from their normal conditions, and it has been difficult to predict them.
The change in rainfall pattern indicates the phenomenon of global climate change, the increase in temperature, the rise of the sea water level, the decrease in biodiversity, and the increase in the extreme climate events such as floods and drought that are difficult to be predicted (Ali & Erenstein, 2017;Idrissou et al., 2020;Masson-Delmotte et al., 2018;Mysiak et al., 2016).Such a phenomenon is also undergone by Indonesia, a country located in South East Asia, which is vulnerable to the impact of climate change (Kurniawan et al., 2020;Kusumasari, 2016).As the primary contributor to global warming, the anthropogenic factor causing the emission of greenhouse gases to increase is mainly responsible for climate change (Lelievel et al., 2019).Global warming caused the earth's temperature by 0,85°C from 1880 to 2012.In 2017, it went up by 1°C, meaning that on average, the earth's temperature has risen from 0,2 to 0,3C per decade (Masson-Delmotte et al., 2018).
The impact of global climate change is multidimensional.The sector which is the most vulnerable to global climate change is the agriculture of irrigated rice as the rice plant growth is so dependent on the climate, especially the temperature and rainfall (Salampessy et al., 2018).That is supported by Sekaranom et al. (2021), who claim that the rice produced from the irrigated rice field is a system of water-intensive agriculture that needs a high water volume for optimum growth.On the one hand, the extreme climate indicated by the fall in rainfall and the rise in temperature causes drought; on the other hand, it leads to excess rain, causing floods.Such a climate condition is harmful to the growth and production of rice.The results of the study conducted by Firdaus et al. (2020) conclude that climate change causes paddy production, food security and other-related matters to fall.Climate change has a negative impact on rice farming in Indonesia, such as the conventional planting time not being applied, the potential areas for cultivation of food commodities being less optimal for plant productivity, and the food security going down, and plant pest to explode or new plant pest to appear.Apart from Indonesia, all countries in Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines, as rice cultivation centers worldwide are not immune from the negative impacts of climate change.Firdaus et al. (2020) and Mohidem et al. (2022), in their research on the influence of climate change on rice crops in Malaysia, reported that climate change poses a significant threat to production, ultimately affecting food security.The same findings were also experienced by rice farmers in Thailand (Kiguchi et al., 2021;Marks, 2011), in Vietnam (Ho et al., 2022;Tran et al., 2022), and in the Philippines (Enovejas et al., 2021;Stuecker et al., 2018).
The agricultural irrigated rice fields in Bali are not immune from the effects of climate change.The negative impact of climate change on the agriculture of the irrigated rice fields in Bali can be strongly felt.Suharyanto et al. (2015) state that the irrigated rice field in Bali is so vulnerable to the risk of the increasing frequency of floods, drought and pest attacks resulting from climate change that it is difficult to predict.The study conducted by Takama et al. (2016) shows that in the period 2000-2008, the rice harvested area in Bali decreased by 7% while productivity increased by 8%, while production was relatively stable.Increased productivity due to technological factors, especially traditional irrigation technology in the form of rotation or mutual borrowing of irrigation water, which is applied between farmers and subaks.However, in the following period (2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020), the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Indonesia (Nuryanti & Waryanto, 2016;Susanti & Supriyatna, 2021) published that the harvested area, production and productivity of rice in Bali experienced a sharp decline.Paddy harvested area, production, and productivity decreased by 37.20%, 44.08% and 2.64%, respectively (Table 1).This declining condition strengthens the prediction of Takama et al. (2016) that the production and productivity of paddy rice in Bali will continue to decline along with a decrease in the harvested area because of climate change and pressures on urban economic development and tourism, which are difficult to control.Sriartha and Giyarsih (2015) reported that traditional irrigated rice farmers in urban areas were more vulnerable to external threats than rural farmers.Traditional irrigation systems, such as subak in Bali, rely on local, nature-based knowledge and technology to address the risks of climate change disasters (Risna et al., 2022).The existence of local knowledge and technology is closer to rural areas compared to urban areas.
Knowing the magnitude of the risk due to climate change faced by the farmers of irrigated rice fields in Bali, as stated above, it is essential to study the adaptive capacity of farmers and strengthen it.Analysis and understanding of the adaptive capacity are significant as the essential information for the decision maker in its attempt to reduce the negative impact of the climate change, to reduce the farmers' vulnerability, and to determine what adaptive strategies are effective both in the global, regional, national, and local levels.Sumaryanto (2013) states that strengthening the adaptive capacity of the farmer is a short-term strategy to reduce their vulnerability because the determinants forming adaptive capacity are internal and easily controlled compared to exposure and sensitivity.
The Regional Governments of Bali Province and Badung Regency have made efforts to strengthen the resilience of the agricultural sector in the face of climate change.One way is to establish policies in the form of regulations related to enhancing the adaptive capacity of the agricultural sector in responding to the negative impacts of climate change.The regulatory policies that have been issued include the Regulation of the Governor of Bali concerning Regional Action Plans for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in 2012, the Regional Regulation of the Province of Bali concerning Organic Agriculture in 2019, the Bali Governor concerning Food Safety and Quality of Agricultural Products in 2022.At a practical level in the field, implementing the regulations that have been set still needs to be improved, such as the involvement of the grassroots community (farmers), and the perceived benefits could not be optimal.Sriartha and Windia (2015) revealed that the policy of the Badung Regency government in controlling the rate of conversion of paddy
fields according to the regulations on Sustainable Food Agricultural Land could have been less effective.Conversion of paddy fields is still rife, even in the green lane, which should be prohibited.As a result, the community responds negatively (lack of trust) towards implementing this policy.
The current study intends to explain the adaptive capacity of irrigated rice farmers in the rural and urban ecosystems based on local specific variables, "Tri Hita Karana (THK) Philosophy", and formulate the strategies needed to strengthen it.The novelty of the research is adopting the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana as a local specific indicator of the adaptive capacity of farmers in the context of scientific knowledge and to produce strategies for strengthening the adaptive capacity of farmers as recommendations for policymakers and other stakeholders.
Bali's agricultural system of irrigated rice fields is unique due to its socio-agrarian-religious character and dense ritual and social activity (Sriartha & Windia, 2015, 2018).The farmers are the subak members.Subak is a traditional indigenous organization that manages the irrigation water and organizes what, where and when to plant based on the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana (Purnamawati et al., 2022).Tri Hita Karana means three components which should be carried out to achieve happiness in life.First, the element of parhyangan, that is, humans should create a harmonious relationship with God.Second, the component of pawongan is creating a balanced relationship among humans.Third, palemahan creates a harmonious relationship between humans and their environment.
The parhyangan component is analogous to cultural aspects, including a view of life, temples and ritual activities, and customary norms and regulations called awig-awig.The Balinese farmer's view of life originates from the Hindu religion of the Balinese people, who believe that happiness can only be achieved by creating harmony in God-man nature (Arif, 1999;Windia, 2006).Subak temples and ritual activities that are carried out routinely are not only religious activities but contain social meaning and ecological preservation of paddy rice (Lansing et al., 2017).Awig-awig is a rule in subak that is based on religious concepts.Subak awig-awig is strictly obeyed by subak members (farmers) because it is a rule that is directly applied (rule in use) and contains socioreligious sanctions and material sanctions that are quite heavy.The pawongan component reflects the social (and economic) aspects of the farmers who are members of the subak.The application of this social aspect is based on the principle of paras-Paros sarpanaya sagilik saguluk selunglung sebayantaka, which is the principle that respects the spirit of mutual help, helping each other, trusting each other, and the feeling of one fate.The components of palemahan are paddy fields and water managed and maintained by building infrastructure/facilities, such as irrigation ditches, water division and distribution, regulating the planting schedule, and maintenance of plants based on the principles of religion, justice, and togetherness.Maintenance of plants and pest control is done by using a religious approach called nangkluk merana (driving the pest away) using a natural cycle system called kerta masa, which is growing one type of plant at the same time in the subak area (Sartini, 2017;Sutawan, 2008).
The concept of "adaptive capacity" has an inclusive dimension and is used within different contexts.Mach et al. (2014, p. 118) define adaptive capacity as "the ability of systems, institutions, humans and other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to respond to consequences".According to Kusumasari (2016), adaptive capacity is synonymous with several concepts: adaptability, coping ability, management capacity, stability, flexibility, and resilience.The determinant and indicator used to determine the individual adaptive capacity or the adaptive capacity of the community of the farmers to adapt to climate change vary enough.Such diversities are due to the characteristics of adaptation that are contextual and specific, determined by the sociocultural, economic and geographical environment (Pörtner et al., 2022;Sumaryanto, 2013).
Two approaches to the farmers' adaptive capacity were identified in the analyses of the studies conducted before.First, the approach of sustainability livelihood (SL) compiled by Departement for International Development (1999) with five asset components or sources are human, social, natural, physical and financial capital (Defiesta & Rapera, 2014;Monwar et al., 2018); and Kurniawan et al. (2020).Second, the approach proposed by Mach et al. (2014) includes six determinants: economic resources, technology, infrastructure, information and skills, institutions and equity.The second approach is generally based on the assets and resources reflecting the SL framework (Defiesta & Rapera, 2014).The sustainable living approach based on assets and resources has received criticism because it failed to consider important contextual information and provided little opportunity for local stakeholders to shape the assessment (Brown et al., 2010;Locwood et al., 2015;Park et al., 2012).In the current study, the dimensions and variables of adaptive capacity are derived from the Tri Hita Karana philosophy (parhyangan = cultural; pawongan = social, Palemahan = physical-natural) as the local characteristics of the irrigated rice field agricultural system of the Balinese society.In addition, two dimensions of the SL approach are used: human and economic/financial.

Method
The study was conducted in Badung Regency, one of Bali's most important centres of the irrigated rice field paddy (Takama et al., 2016).The ecosystem of the irrigated rice fields can be found in four districts: Petang District, Abiansemal District, Mengwi District, and North Kuta District.

Research design and sampling techniques
The research design used is sequential explanatory mixed methods (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).The first stage was to collect data using a survey method and then analyze the results.In the second stage, interviews were conducted with key informants and several farmers to obtain more in-depth information regarding the survey results and justify odd or contradictory survey data.
The sample of the study was determined using the multistage sampling technique.In the first stage, two districts were purposively chosen; they are North Kuta District, whose whole area has the status of being urban, representing the ecosystem of the irrigated rice fields located in the urban area, and Petang District, whose entire area has the quality of being rural as the representation of the ecosystem of the irrigated rice fields located in the rural area (Statistics Center of Badung Regency, 2021).In the second stage, three subaks were randomly chosen as the samples of each irrigated rice field ecosystem were determined.The random result obtained using the lottery technique caused the Subak Batu Lantang (108 farmers), the Subak Babakan Bengkel I (194 farmers), and the Subak Babakan Bengkel III (178 farmers) to be chosen as the samples of the subaks located in rural areas, the Subak Gaji (89 farmers), the Subak Canggu (80 farmers), and the Subak Kedampang to be chosen as the samples of the subaks located in urban areas (Figure 1).
In the third stage, the quota of the samples of the farmers was determined using the formula proposed by Slovin (Primajana & Marhaeni, 2020) with a 0.08 error margin.Added together, the farmers used as the population of the study coming from the six subaks are 808 farmers.One hundred thirty-one farmers (family heads) samples were obtained using the formula proposed by Slovin.In the fourth stage, the farmers used as the samples in each subak were determined using the sampling random proportional technique.They obtained the distribution of samples in each subak as follows: Subak Batu Lantang = 18 farmers, Subak Babakan Bengkel I = 31 farmers, Subak Babakan Bengkel III = 29 farmers, Subak Gaji = 14 farmers, Subak Canggu = 13 farmers, and Subak Kedampang = 26 farmers.Thus, the farmers used as the sample coming from the rural area total 78 and the urban area total 53.Then, the respondents were chosen from the farmers used as the samples using the lottery technique.After collecting and analyzing quantitative data, qualitative interviews were conducted with two Agricultural Extension staff, two Pekaseh/Heads of Subak samples and one Head of the Food and Extension Division at the Badung Regency Agriculture Office as key informants.They are considered experienced in managing traditional irrigated rice fields.The focus of the qualitative interviews is to gather information about values, views, and experiences of farming in increasing the adaptive capacity of farmers, explaining the results of previous surveys that were dubious, strange, or contradictory.

Dimensions and variables of the farmers' adaptive capacity
The specific and generic dimensions and variables of the farmers' adaptive capacity used in the study were excavated from the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana and the SL approach as the general framework.Based on the above concepts, the study applies five dimensions: cultural, human, social, economic, and physical-natural.Measurement descriptions of these dimensions and variables are presented in Table 2.

Data collection and analysis techniques
The study's data was collected through a semi-structured questionnaire-guided interview.Before the questionnaire was used, a content (rational) validity test was carried out using the Gregory technique by three experts from human geography, cultural studies and socio-economic agriculture.Analysis of the three experts' assessment results resulted in an average Gregory index of 0.92, which means very high (the maximum Gregory Index is 1.0).In this study, the empirical validity test was not carried out, considering that the content validity test results were classified as very high.It meant the instrument was by the objectives, concepts and variables studied.This consideration refers to the opinion of Nurgiyantoro et al. (2016) that the content validity test is far more important than the empirical validity test.Each instrument must meet the requirements of content validity, but there is no requirement to fulfil empirical validity.Instrument reliability was tested using Alpha Cronbach's technique, involving 36 traditional irrigated rice farmers outside the sample subjects.The results of data analysis with SPSS software version 21 obtained the statistical reliability of Alpha Cronbach's of 0.863 with N of item 42.The minimum standard for acceptance of Alpha Cronbach's reliability is > 0.62 (Nurgiyantoro et al., 2016).The reliability test result of 0.863 is above the minimum standard, so the research instrument meets high validity and reliability standards.Data were analyzed using a sequential quantitative-qualitative technique.The farmer's adaptive capacity was calculated using the unweighted index.The reason is that dimensions and indicators are assumed to have the same roles and complement each other (Thapa et al., 2016).The variable index (Iv) is calculated based on what is specified in the Human Development Index (Roser, 2014) using Formula 1 (in which the higher is, the better) and Formula 2 (in which the lower is, the better).HDI explains how residents can access development outcomes in obtaining income, health, education, and others.The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) introduced the HDI in 1990 and is published regularly in the annual Human Development Report (HDR).HDI is an important indicator to measure success in building the quality of human life (community/population).HDI can determine the rank or level of development of a region/country.Source: Report on Mapping Sustainable Food Agriculture Land, Badung Regency Agriculture and Food Service, 2018.
The functions of temples and religious rituals (V2) The farmers maintain and carry out the tasks of the temples and the spiritual traditions performed by the subak when processing the irrigated rice fields. 2 items of statements using the Likert Scale (4= very agree; 3= agree; 2= less agree; 1= disagree).The higher, the better.
Farmers' obedience to a wigawig (the customary law) as the rules in use (V3) The extent to which the farmers are faithful to the awig-awig (the customary law already agreed) and the extent to which one famer socializes it to another farmer.2 items of statements using the Likert Scale (4=very agree; 3= agree; 2=less agree; 1=disagree).The higher, the better.

Age (V4)
The farmers' ages in a year.The higher, the better.

Education (V5)
The total school years completed by the farmers.The higher, the better.

Dependency ratio (V6)
The ratio of unemployed family members to those who are employed.The lower, the better.

Land and crop management (V7)
The farmers' ability to manage the irrigated rice field farming (the integrated pest and disease management, plant diversification, the balanced use of fertilizers).Three items of questions.Score 4 = regularly; 3= scarcely; 2= very scarcely; 1= never.The higher, the better.

The knowledge of climate change (V8)
The farmers' knowledge of climate change (symptons, causes, and impacts) Ten questions items.Score wrong = 0 and right = 1.The higher, the better.

Access to technology and information (V9)
Accessibility of farmers to obtain the technology and information related to climate change on the internet, from the agricultural field extension, and other sources.Three items of questions.Score 4 = very high; 3 = high; 2 = low; 1= very low.The higher, the better.
Trusting the subak head, the other farmers and external parties.Three items of questions.4= very high; 3= high; 2=low; 1=very low.The higher, the better (Continued) The index of every item is obtained by adding up the individual index (the farmer) divided by the number of individuals.The variable index is calculated by dividing the item index by the number of items in that variable.The dimension index is obtained by adding up the index value of every variable divided by the number of variables in that dimension.In this current study, five classifications of assessment criteria based on the range of ideal index values from zero to one are used; they are very low (0-0.19),low (0.20-0.39), moderate (0.40-0.59), high (0.60-0.79), and very high (0.80-1.00).
Qualitative data was collected using in-depth interviews, observation, and document recording.The credibility of the data was tested using source triangulation, method triangulation and time triangulation techniques.Data credibility testing and data analysis were carried out during data collection in the field until the end of data collection within a certain period.Data were analyzed using the Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) model through data condensation, data display and conclusion drawing/verification activities.These three activities were carried out interactively, along with data collection in the field.Condensation activities are related to sorting and selecting important, new, unique, and contextual data, creating categories, and constructing relationships between categories.Data display is carried out by presenting data that has been condensed narratively, complete with tables and graphs.Drawing conclusions is not done once, but through The income earned from farming (V13) The family's net income (Rp/month) was earned from the irrigated rice field farming and plantation and by raising livestock within the last planting season.The higher, the better.
The income earned from nonagricultural activities (V14) The family's net income earned from nonagricultural activities (businesses, housebuilding, rental and other services (Rp/ month).The higher, the better.
The Access to the financial capital (V15) The access to loans. 1 item of question.Score 1= very high; 2= not easy; 4= very easy.The higher, the better.

Access to any market (V16)
The access to agricultural commodities at reasonable prices. 1 item of question.Score 1= very difficult; 2= difficult; 3= easy; 4= very easy.The higher, the better.
The status of the cultivated irrigated rice fields (V18) 1=the tenant; 2= the owner; 3=the owner and the tenant.
The area of the cultivated dry land (V19) The area of the currently cultivated dry land (hectare).The higher, the better.
The status of the cultivated dry land (V20) 1= the tenant (farmer worker of other's); 2= the owner non-worker; 3= the owner and the tenant (Owner farmer and worker of own farmland and other's farmland).

Access to irrigation water (V21)
The percentage of the planting area to the total area of the irrigated rice fields.The higher, the better.
The ability to overcome contaminated irrigation water (V22) The ability to overcome contaminated water irrigation. 1 item of question.Score: 1= unable; 2= less able; 3= able; 4= very able.The higher, the better.
the crystallization of the findings that have been made since data collection, data condensation and data display, and if necessary, verification activities will be carried out again at the data collection, condensation, and display stages.Strategies are formulated by analyzing the characteristics of the variable indexes determining the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural and urban areas and based on the results of qualitative data analysis.Qualitative data was also used to explore the meaning of the symbols and values of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy as a measure of adaptive capacity to climate change..51 in urban areas.The dependency ratios in both regions show good figures, 0.97 for rural areas and 0.58 for urban areas.It indicates that the economic burden of working family members on non-working family members is small.Judging from family income, farmers in rural areas are higher in the agricultural sector, while farmers in urban areas are higher in the non-agricultural sector.This is because traditional urban irrigated rice farming in the study area is in a tourism area that is developing very rapidly, thus opening up various non-agricultural employment opportunities.The area and status of paddy fields are production factors that determine farmers' level of production and income.In this context, rural farmers can increase production and higher incomes than urban farmers.

The farmers' adaptive capacity index
The index of the adaptive capacity of the farmers of the traditional irrigated rice fields in the rural and urban areas is presented based on its dimension in Figure 2.
The farmers' ACI (Adaptive Capacity Index) in Figure 2 shows that the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area is better than those in the urban area.The index of the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area can be classified as high (0.61).In contrast, the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the urban area can be classified as moderate (0.53).The average index value of every dimension shows that the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area is better in three dimensions: the cultural, social, and physical-natural dimensions.Unlike the farmers in the urban area, their adaptive capacity index values are lower if viewed from the physical-natural, social, and cultural dimensions but better if viewed from the economic and human dimensions.
Apart from the dimension-based comparison, the adaptive capacity of the farmers of the traditional rice fields in the rural area is also compared to that of those in the urban area using 22 variables adopted from five dimensions.Figure 3 shows the relative result of comparing the variables of the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area and those in the urban area visualized as a spider web.The figure shows 15 variables causing the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural areas to be higher (V1, V2, V3, V4, V7, V10, V11, V12, V13, V17, V18, V19, V20, V21, V22).The figure also shows five variables (V6, V9, V14, V15, V16, and two (V5, V8) that are relatively the same as urban farmers.
Table 4 shows each variable's absolute index value and relative adaptive capacity.In general, the absolute index value, as well as the relative index value of the ability of traditional irrigated rice farmers in rural areas, is higher than that of urban farmers.Rural farmers have four very high-level adaptation capacity variables and nine high-level variables concentrating on the social-cultural and physical-natural dimensions.Meanwhile, the low-level adaptive capacity variables are focused on the human and economic dimensions.Traditional irrigated paddy farmers in urban areas only have the better adaptive capacity in the variable dependency ratio (human dimension), income from non-agricultural activities (economic dimension) and access to financial capital (economic dimension).

Cultural dimensions and variables
The results of the above research indicate that cultural factors are still part of the lives of farmers in running their farming businesses, especially farmers in rural areas whose cultural attachments are still strong.Three cultural aspects that stand out in the Balinese people's traditional irrigated rice farming system are a way of life, rituals, and awig-awig (customary law).Farmers in rural areas have a very high belief that the Tri Hita Karana philosophy they adhere to is the way to achieve happiness in life, both in this world and in the hereafter (Purnamawati et al., 2023).Therefore, they apply the three components of Tri Hita Karana consistently and will never change or replace them with anything else.The function of subak temples and religious ritual activities, unique in farming, are well maintained and run.The awig-awig subak was strictly obeyed by the farmers for fear of getting the social and religious sanctions imposed by the subak.Obedience to awig-awig is also based on belief in God's law because awig-awig is decided together at the Subak Temple, which God witnesses.The high involvement of farmers in rural culture is reinforced by the results of interviews with Pekaseh or subak leaders as one of the key informants as follows."Tri Hita Karana has become part of the life of farmers in this subak.Sourced from the Hindu religion we inherited from our ancestors, no farmers dare to change it with other teachings.Farmers carry out religious rituals.Each growing season has individual and collective rituals at the subak level and of many types, including the magpag toya, mewinih, nangkluk merana and ngusaba ceremonies.The presence of farmers is very compact, including in other subak activities".(KI-1/rural) Rural farmers in the study area carry out the magpag toya ceremony or collect water from a water source, namely Ulun Danu Beratan Temple (Lake Beratan), to request that water flow smoothly to the farmers' fields.The mewinih ceremony is a ceremony that is carried out for the first time by planting rice seeds.When the rice turns yellow or before the harvest, the Ngusaba ceremony is performed.The nangkluk merana ceremony is a religious activity carried out integrated involving all subaks in one river or weir.The purpose of this ritual is to ask for permission to naturally break the cycle of pests and diseases of rice plants so that a natural balance occurs.Suprapta (2005) states that the essence of the nangkluk merana ritual is cohesion, compact and simultaneous, not killing all but creating a natural balance through God's grace.The Nagkluk Merana ceremony is identical or commensurate with the scientific methods of the Integrated Pest Management program by the Government of Indonesia.Sartini (2017) states that the symbolic meaning of the rituals performed by farmers is: (1) an expression of gratitude to God in its manifestation as Dewa Vishnu for his creation in the form of water and Dewi Sri for her gift in the form of the fertility of paddy fields, (2) asking permission from God to utilize land and water, (3) begging God to keep the rice plants away from pests and diseases, (4) begging for a successful rice harvest, and (5) maintaining environmental balance.
In contrast to farmers in rural areas, the attachment of traditional irrigated rice field farmers in urban areas to Tri Hita Karana is lower.This finding is supported by the research results of Artajaya et al. (2016) that the implementation of the Tri Hita Karana philosophy and rice farming rituals in subak rural areas is better than the implementation of rice farming rituals in subak urban areas in Bali, with a difference of 6.35 %.Wijayanti et al. (2020), the level of sustainability of subak as a traditional irrigation system in urban Denpasar, Bali, is very low due to the mindset or views of farmers and policymakers that do not support the components of Tri Hita Karana.Symptoms of the weakening of the value and application of Tri Hita Karana in paddy field farming in urban areas in the study area can be seen from the reduced types and intensity of lowland rice farming rituals, decreased collective activity, the emergence of conflicts over water and irrigated paddy fields, decreased farmer obedience to awig-awig.This phenomenon is a manifestation of the weakening of the farmer's attachment to the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana, as was also expressed by Pekaseh/Head of Subak, during an interview as follows.
"Farmers in this subak are difficult to manage; they walk independently and are busy working outside their farm.Most farmers only go to their fields briefly, in the morning before work, then in the afternoon after they come from work.Almost all farmers use hired labour.Unlike in the past, before tourism development in this subak, all farmers, with their awareness, are compactly present in farming ritual activities, work together and help each other.Now, all are paid wages; many do not obey the awig-awig or care about social, religious or material sanctions.Types of religious ceremonies in rice farming began to decrease.The collective ceremonies still being carried out are magpag toya and nangkluk merana".(KI-2/urban) Although there are signs of weakening cultural aspects in irrigated rice farming systems in urban areas, the function of religious rituals, which is the core of cultural factors, is not only limited to religious functions but also has social and ecological functions.Koentjaraningrat (1993) states that ritual is the first stage of the cultural aspect, which is the basis of sustainability.Lansing et al. (2017), through digital analysis of satellite imagery, concluded that the water temple network in Bali has a social function of uniting farmers and subak, complex adaptive processes and controlling rat pest attacks through synchronization and work coordinatively between subaks in an ecosystem in a watershed.Windia (2006) stated that a water temple (subak) in each dam is a control mechanism from God over irrigation water management.Farmers are afraid to do bad things, such as stealing water, because they are believed to be punished by God.In this context, the Water Temple functions to prevent water conflicts.A study conducted by Purnamawati et al. (2022) and Wibowo et al. (2021) states that the cultural approach through the internalization of values, norms, and habits to live harmoniously with nature, fellow humans and the Creator applied by the local community represents the local community's adaptation to the climate.According to Few et al. (2020) and Adger et al. (2013), cultural dimensions such as beliefs, rituals, and cultural practices can significantly mediate the responses given and the adaptations made by societies to face the impact of climate change.

Human dimensions and variables
Almost all variables of farmers' adaptive capacity on the human dimension have the same level in rural and urban areas, except for the dependency ratio.Generally, the old farmers have physical and health vulnerabilities and need to be more creative and innovative.Ngadi et al. (2023) report that young people in Indonesia are more interested in migrating to work in manufacturing and services in urban areas, and this has implications for the age group of older people working in the agricultural sector, increasing from 7.6% in 1971 to 21.22% in 2020.Age is closely related to farming experience.
Experience is critical for farming as it helps farmers recognize problems, predict crop yields, and better adopt agronomic practices to mitigate vulnerability (Akhtar et al., 2019;Ho et al., 2022).
Regarding their formal education, the farmers in the rural and urban areas are moderate.However, their education is on the average of elementary school graduates, causing them to have low access to the availability of different types of information.This condition causes their adaptive capacity to face climate change to be quiet.Ali and Erenstein (2017) prove that age and education are the critical factors determining the farmers' adaptive capacity.Educated farmers are more responsive to adopting new methods and technology to overcome the negative impact of climate change than the old and less educated ones.The variable of the dependency ratio (V3) shows the economic burden of the working family members, namely, the comparison of the number of working family members to the number of non-working family members.This variable is at a low level for the farmers in the rural area (averaging 0.97) and at a high level for the farmers in the urban area (averaging 0.58).The common knowledge of and access to information technology on climate change contribute to the farmers' inability to determine what adaptive strategies are accurate (Devkota et al., 2018;Jha et al., 2021;Salampessy et al., 2018;Wulansari et al., 2022).However, Rockney (2022) states that farmers can manage climate change according to their experience and instincts.As in many parts of the world, climate change threatens resourcedependent communities with severe droughts, heat waves, and wildfires.

Social dimensions and variables
The three variables used in the social dimension represent the role played by the social capital of the farmers of the traditional irrigated rice fields in Bali to face climate change.The farmers who are the subak members have diverse indigenous social capitals that can be observed from the collective actions performed to realize their collective interests, such as obtaining the allocation of water justly, the obligation of paying dues over the right to the water accepted, helping one another and cooperation in maintaining the irrigation water and establishment of cropping patterns and Schedules.All the collective actions are regulated under the customary law called "awigawig", which is openly and directly applied (rule in use).The subak also applies the one-inlet and one-outlet system in every block of the irrigated rice fields to enable the farmers to organize the irrigation water when diversifying plants and avoid too much water (floods) from taking place.
The type and intensity of collective action in managing irrigated rice fields in rural areas are consistently applied by farmers compared to farmers in urban areas.It can be seen from the level and absolute index value of social dimension variables in rural areas, which are better than in urban areas.The following is an excerpt from an interview with Pekaseh in one of the Subak samples in rural areas and one of the samples in urban areas about how the Subak organizes the water distribution through the water rotation system to overcome the drought or water scarcity."In the dry season, the water is insufficient to irrigate all the farmers' paddy fields.Based on the subak meeting, we rotate the water in an upstream-middle-downstream pattern.Within 30 days, it is targeted that all farmers can plant rice.The first ten days, the water is given to a group of farmers whose rice fields are upstream, the next ten days to a group of farmers in the middle, and the next ten days, the water is given to a group of farmers whose fields are downstream.Within 30 days, all farmers' paddy fields can be planted with rice simultaneously.Simultaneous planting, known as kerta masa, besides being able to overcome water shortages in the dry season, is also to break the cycle of pest and disease attacks".(KI-3/rural) "Our subak does not regulate collective water rotation.Farmers borrow water from each other if they need it.Cooperation for maintaining irrigation canals and subak facilities does not exist but with hired labour.Many farmers do not attend when invited to subak meetings and meetings involving field extension workers.The activity was only attended by subak administrators and some farmers who were still aware".(KI-4/urban) The irrigation water rotation system in rural areas mentioned above is one of the original knowledge areas in the subak system, which is effective in overcoming the scarcity of irrigation water in times of drought due to climate change.Pekaseh, who was interviewed, also reported that the average productivity of paddy in the dry season was higher (6.64 tons/ha) compared to the rainy season (5.87 tons/ha).Rice plants need optimal sunlight and enough water to grow their seeds.The results of this interview are in line with the results of research by Suharyanto et al. (2015) that the productivity of paddy rice in three regencies in Bali (Gianyar, Tabanan and Buleleng Regencies) is higher in the dry season (7.06 tons/ha) than in the rainy season (6.53 tons/Ha).Chapman (2022), Wulansari et al. (2022), and Gong et al. (2018) prove that social capital plays an essential role in the improvement of the farmers' adaptive capacity to face the negative impact of climate change.

Economic dimensions and variables
This current study finds that the most critical node of the adaptive capacity of the farmers of the traditional cultivated rice fields in the rural area is the economic problem, indicated by the low income earned from the farming activities (averaging Rp. 3,597 million/month) and from non-farming activities (averaging Rp. 1,428 million/month), the access to the financial capital and the market.The farmers' income earned from non-farming activities is minimal, and their bargaining value to the price of the rice they harvest needs to be improved.The result of the study shows that 2.28% of the farmers say that the price they receive is low and that 26.29% of them say that the price is very low.This is supported by the study conducted by Wulansari et al. (2022);Suryanto et al., 2021.According to them, the limited diversification of the sources of their income and the access to loans cause their vulnerability to climate change to increase and become the most critical factor determining the farmers' adaptive capacity.Ali and Erenstein (2017) prove that wealthy farmers tend to adopt the adaptive strategy as they can invest their capital in acquiring new methods and technology for facing the impact of climate change.The farmers in the urban area show better conditions because their income from non-farming activities is high, and their access to financial capital is moderate.It is understandable as there are many alternative job opportunities and service facilities of loan sources such as banks and cooperatives in the urban area and centre of tourism.

Physical-natural dimensions and variables
Six variables of the physical-natural dimension in the rural area show that the condition of the farmers in the rural area is better than that of those in the urban area.The problem of the farmers in the urban area is that their ownership of dry land needs to be higher and that their ability to overcome the contamination of the irrigation water is low as well.This problem is related to the increased need for land for residences and the dense urban industrial economic activities.The contamination and irrigation canal disturbance in plastic rubbish and industrial laundry waste has become the main problem faced by the farmers where the study was conducted.The other problem is the land pressure for the irrigated rice fields resulting from its conversion from being used as an agricultural area into a non-agricultural area.The phenomenon of conversion of irrigated paddy fields in tourism and urban areas in Bali is taking place very massively and is a serious threat to the sustainability of Subak as an irrigated rice farmer organization (Risna et al., 2022;Sriartha & Windia, 2015;Wijayanti et al., 2020).The result of the study conducted by Roth (2014) also reveals that the development of the urban area and tourism area has caused the farmers of the traditional irrigated rice fields in Bali, who are the subak members, to be getting more marginalized, as a consequence of the pressure of the conversion of the irrigated rice fields, the transfer of the irrigation water to the need for the non-agricultural interests, the environmental degradation, and the exodus of the young workforce to the urban/tourism sector.Based on the problems mentioned above, the farmers in the urban area must strengthen their adaptive capacity in the physical-natural variables, especially their ability to overcome the irrigation water and the conversion of the irrigated rice field area.

The strategy to strengthen the farmers' adaptive capacity
The diversity of the farmers' adaptive capacity levels results from the factors or variables forming it Sumaryanto (2012); therefore, the determining factors/variables need to be strengthened to improve the adaptive capacity.The concept of an adaptive capacity determining factor becomes the basis for formulating the strategies and programs recommended to the regional government to overcome the threat of climate change and improve food security and the farmers' welfare (Suciantini Estiningtyas & Rahman, 2020).The formulation of a strategy for strengthening the adaptation capacity of traditional irrigated rice farmers in dealing with climate change is based on the results of the adaptation capacity index and interviews with Pekaseh/head of subak, Agricultural Extension and staff from the Badung District Agriculture Office.They were asked for their opinion on strategies to strengthen the adaptation capacity of farmers to deal with climate change.The interview data and information were combined with the adaptation capacity index level data and then analyzed qualitatively through reduction, classification and confirmation processes.Based on these techniques, this study determines five strategies to strengthen the adaptation capacity of traditional irrigated rice farmers to deal with climate change.
First, the subak is developed as the "climate field school" (CFS).CFS is a program that the Bogor Agricultural Institute originally initiated in collaboration with the Meteorology and Geophysics Agency, which is currently an Indonesian government program that has proven effective in increasing climate understanding and literacy for farmers and extension workers (Hollburg & Stöber, 2021;Prayoga et al., 2021).As a local organization of the farmers in Bali, which has been decided as one of the world's cultural heritages, it is responsive to the development of its external environment; therefore, it has excellent potential to be developed as the climate field school.This strategy is mainly recommended to improve the variable's adaptive capacity of education, land and crop management, knowledge of climate change, and access to technology and information in the two areas.The CFS can be used as the collective learning media for several activity programs; they are (1) the media for understanding the behaviour of the climate elements, the phenomenon of climate change, what leads to it, and its impact; (2) the media for learning the application of the information on the climate to determine the planting schedule and pattern by integrating the local knowledge with the digital-based integrated system of the information on the planting calendar; (3) the media for introducing and applying the technology of the land management, water and production media (including varieties, fertilizer, pesticide) that are adaptive to the climate change; (4) the media for conducting the field trip to the meteorological station to obtain the access to the equipment used to measure the climate elements, and other activities.The effectiveness, success and sustainability of this strategy depend on the role played by the Regional Government in establishing the collaborated cooperation with the Meteorology and Geophysical Agency, the Field Agricultural Extension, and the other stakeholders.
Second, the strategy to include agriculture and the subak system in the primary and secondary education curriculum as the local content.The young generation is expected to become more interested in farming and subak through education.Disinterest by the younger people poses a risk to the sustainability of the subak system in the future.This strategy intends to strengthen the variable age for farmers in rural and urban areas.
Third, the activity programs to strengthen the agricultural, cultural and social capitals, with the main target being the farmers in the urban area, such as (1) the partnership of the Field Agricultural Extension in the activities of helping one another and in the collective actions conducted by the farmers (variables of helping one another and cooperation); (2) Financially subsidizing the activities conducted to maintain the subak's socio and cultural activities (variables of the function of temples and religious rituals); (3) involving the farmers and the subaks in the urban areas to take participate in the agricultural festival held by the Government of Badung Regency (variables of the function of temples and religious rituals).
Fourth, the empowerment of the farmers' economy through the following activity programs: (1) the program of changing the farmers' paradigm that only regards agriculture as the socio-religious activity into the paradigm that regards agriculture as an activity of developing agro-eco-business (variables of the income earned from farming); (2) the program of developing the agro-industrial activity involving the plantation, livestock and agro-tourism sectors (variables of the income earned from farming); (3) the program of developing small and middle non-farming industrial sector (variables of the income earned from the non-agricultural activities); (4) the program of improving the access to the financial capital and loans (variable of the access to the financial capital); (5) the program of improving the added value of the agricultural products and the guaranteed market access to the tourism sector (variables of the income earned from farming and access to any market); (6) the program of providing subsidies in the forms of saprodi (production facilities), alsistan (agricultural machine and equipment), and agricultural insurance (variables of the income earned from farming); (7) the program of making use of the agricultural festival as the event in which the local agricultural products can be marketed (variable of access to any market).All seven activity programs are intended to strengthen the economic capacity of the farmers in the rural area.In contrast, the activity programs ( 1), ( 3), ( 5), ( 6) and ( 7) are intended to strengthen the economic capacity of the farmers in the urban area.
Fifth, the following activity programs are designed to protect the area of the irrigated rice fields and irrigation water: (1) the program of revitalizing the awig-awig (the customary law) of the subak and integrating it with the legal-formal law (variables of the area of the cultivated irrigated rice fields, the status of the cultivated irrigated rice fields, access to irrigation water, the ability to overcome contaminated irrigation water); (2) the program of justly, consistently and firmly protecting the zone of the exclusive area of the irrigated rice fields already determined (variables of the area of the cultivated irrigated rice fields); (3) the program of establishing collaborative and coordinative cooperation between the subak and the traditional village and administrative village in terms of the source-based rubbish management.(4) the program of repairing the irrigation infrastructure (variable of access to irrigation water); (5) the program of applying the green economy approach to the development of the urban and tourism infrastructure (variables of the area of the cultivated irrigated rice fields, the area of the cultivated dry land, access to irrigation water and the ability to overcome contaminated irrigation water).The first four programs in this fifth strategy focus on the urban area's farmers.

Conclusion
The current study shows that the index of the adaptive capacity of the farmers of the traditional irrigated rice fields in the rural area is better than that of those in the urban area.The index of the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area averages 0,61 (high level), whereas that of those in the urban area averages 0,52 (moderate level).The social, cultural and natural-physical environmental dimensions contribute significantly to the lower adaptive capacity of irrigated rice farmers in urban areas.These three dimensions reflect that rural farmers still have a strong attachment to the Tri Hita Karana philosophy.The Tri Hita Karana philosophy, which has a socioagrarian-religious pattern, is an important approach for rural farmers in managing their farming businesses.In contrast to farmers in urban areas whose regional development is very complex and heterogeneous economically, socially, culturally, and demographically, the physical environment is a challenge for farmers in implementing the Tri Hita Karana philosophy well.Socio-cultural values and activities such as farming rituals and collective actions of farmers have decreased, so the potential for conflict damage to irrigation water resources and rice fields is increasing.These results show that the characteristics of the adaptive capacity are contextual and specific location in nature and influence the sociocultural, economic and geographical environmental characteristics.Traditional wisdom, such as Tri Hita Karana in the subak system, plays an effective role in building the adaptive capacity of farmers to deal with climate change in homogeneous communities such as rural areas.Local knowledge embodied in the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana is compatible with scientific knowledge to strengthen the adaptive capacity of farmers in facing climate change.However, based on the Tri Hita Karana philosophy, this traditional irrigation system must improve when dealing with heterogeneous community environments such as urban areas.Therefore, strengthening the adaptive capacity of conventional irrigated rice farmers can be carried out synergistically between supporting their local wisdom values and empowering the economic capacity and quality of farmers' resources.Strengthening the adaptive capacity of farmers in rural areas is crucial in the economic dimensions and quality of human resources without ignoring the values of local wisdom.Meanwhile, what is vital for farmers in urban areas is revitalizing the local wisdom values of Tri Hita Karana and strengthening the quality of their farmers' resources.
Based on the determining variables, the farmers' adaptive capacity level varies from very high, high, low, and moderate levels.The critical node for strengthening the farmers' adaptive capacity is more focused on the variables levelled as being low and moderate.Based on the variation of the variables levelled as being low and moderate undergone by the farmers in the two areas, this current study formulates the five strategies used to strengthen the farmers' adaptive process completed with the activity programs and addressed to the three target supporting groups.First, the strategy and the work program are intended to strengthen the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area.Second, the strategy and the work program are intended to strengthen the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the urban area.Third, the strategy and work program is intended to strengthen the adaptive capacity of the farmers in rural and urban areas.The effectiveness of the implementation of the strategies and work programs intended to strengthen the farmers' adaptive capacity is dependent on the commitment and central role of the government, especially the regional government as the decision maker and the other stakeholders such as the Meteorology and Geophysical Agency, educational institutions, the Field Agricultural Extension and the subak organization.
The limitation of this research is that it has yet to reveal in-depth the effect of the variables used on the adaptation capacity of traditional irrigated rice farmers.The strategy formulation uses limited qualitative analysis based on the interpretation of quantitative research results and a limited number of key informants.This study suggests further research to explain the adaptive capacity variables in more depth, like using inferential statistical methods.It is also suggested that there is research for a sharper analysis of strategies for strengthening adaptive capacity, for example, the SWOT(strength, Weakness, Opportunity, Threat) technique involving more stakeholders.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Location of study area.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. The farmers' ACI in the rural and urban areas based on its dimensions.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3.The comparison of the variable index of the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area to those in Urban Area.

Table 2 . (Continued) Dimension Variables Description
Nik et al. (2018)19)t the age of the dominant respondent farmers is over 50 years.The average age of farmers in rural areas was 57.50 years, and farmers in urban areas were 61.09 years.The age of farmers in urban areas is slightly higher, but most are over 55 years old.The farmer's age is closely related to his farming experience with the various risks he has experienced.In the context of climate change, older farmers have better adaptive experiences than younger farmers.Akhtar et al. (2019)andHo et al. (2022)stated that age is closely related to farming experience.Experience is critical for farming as it helps farmers recognize problems, predict crop yields, and better adopt agronomic practices to mitigate vulnerability.Nik et al. (2018)reported that the age of farmers is positively correlated with their level of adaptive capacity.Every additional year of farmer's age will increase adaptive capacity by 2.1%.The average farmer's formal education did not complete junior high school or elementary school equivalent, namely 7.42 in rural areas and 7

Table 4 . The variable's absolute index value and relative of the adaptive capacity of the farmers in the rural area to those in the urban area
Source: Results of Research Data Analysis, 2022.