Socio-cultural and economic determinants of girl child education in Ashaiman municipality of the Greater Accra region of Ghana

Abstract Girl-child education in the African context continues to be an important subject matter that needs to be studied. While efforts to address the challenges have been made over the years, this study aims to provide a deeper understanding of the unique demographic, economic, and sociocultural factors that impact girl-child education, which could subsequently affect future policies in Ghana to improve gender parity in education. The study aims to explore the sociocultural and economic elements that impact girl child education in the Ashaiman municipality, where studies have revealed an increasing disparity in gender and unequal representation of females in education and socioeconomic endeavors. This present study employed a quantitative descriptive survey approach with questionnaires as the primary data-gathering tool. A total sample of 165 household heads constituted the main respondents. The Binary Logistics Regression method was utilized for the data analysis using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20.0). The various deductions from the study confirm some demographic, economic, and sociocultural factors such as household size, culture, early marriage, the income level of the household, and migration were the key factors that influenced the girl child education in the Ashaiman municipality. The findings of this study have empirical and policy contributions to shape future research and policies on girl child education specifically in Ghana which is also relevant to the empowerment of females.


Introduction
Education is relevant to human development.As the subject of girl empowerment becomes more prominent, many experts, lawmakers, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) agree that one of the most important ways of empowering girls is via education.Gender equality is a thundering appeal for radical change in a society distinguished by development and growing ideas.As the worldwide conversation about empowerment and inclusion heats up, education appears as a critical avenue through which cultural paradigms are evolving.Globally, the empowerment of females through education is gaining traction as a catalyst for change.Education is a powerful instrument for empowering girls, supporting their success, progress, and general well-being, according to international experts, and policymakers.The significance of girl education is critical for any country's progress, particularly in developing nations (Gyasi et al., 2019).The impact of female education is a key influential factor for development in Africa.Education is recognized as a strategy for promoting economic growth.It is an investment venture for nations, parents, and guardians.Consequently, providing suitable education to girls is the cornerstone of empowering women in Africa and throughout the entirety of humanity.
In compliance with Ghana's 1992 Constitution, any person below the age of 18 is classified as a child, thus any female falling within the definition is a girl child.Education has been viewed as a means of reducing social prejudice and hardship, as well as a means of achieving a unified and peaceful community.Nevertheless, there has been a lack of focus on the receiver, as seen by biases based on gender and disparities against females.Owing to a variety of factors, Africa has the biggest number of unschooled girls (UNESCO, 2015).Girls' education is a human right, not a favor; every child should have access to a high-quality education.For education to achieve its purpose, it must be gender-sensitive.Thus, efforts at extending education across borders have been in the positive direction, to ensure every child has access to quality education.
The legal framework of Ghana affirms the equality of all people regardless of gender, ethnic group, or position; nonetheless, the issue of female education persists due to poverty, economic crises, inadequate funds, proximity to schools, cultural customs, and sexual harassment (Ouma et al., 2017).Poverty, unfavorable opinions of women's intellectual capacities, adolescent pregnancy, marriage before age 18, and test failure in mathematics and science have all been barriers to girl-child education (Iddrisu, 2016).These issues have left a substantial number of females discontinuing school and preventing them from accessing their right to education.Therefore, it is essential to address these issues through increased funding, improved availability of educational resources, and cultural reforms.
In Ghana, girl education problems are associated with poverty and low economic areas, particularly in rural and undeveloped towns.In response, national and international interventions have been focused on these regions, such as the GES partnership with Oxfam to combat gender-driven violence in schools and implement an all-girls school in the Northern region.However, little to no attention has been devoted to the uneducated girls in the cities and developed towns, leading to a rapid growth in their number.This is compounded by the migration of young girls from Northern Ghana to the capital city, where many of them work as porters and live in deplorable conditions.This migration further increases the population of uneducated girls, as they are unable to access basic and quality education.Thus, it is critical for both national and international initiatives to pay attention to girls' education in urban centers and rural areas, to adequately address the girl education problem in Ghana (UNESCO, 2015).
Prior studies have often highlighted the importance of girl education within the broader gender equality discourse.However, a nuanced comparison between the educational experiences of girl children and boy children remains largely uncharted territory (Perrin, 2022;Thijs et al., 2019).This comparative viewpoint serves as a call to action, demanding attention to the complicated gender dynamics at work in the field of education.In a comparative study by Alhassan (2010) in the Northern part of Ghana, 65.3% of the 150 participants said they let girls cook and clean the home prior to and following school, while 17.3% said they constantly involved their girl-child in minor business (Alhassan, 2010).They emphasized once more that girls, unlike males, are supposed to help their moms with household duties.Furthermore, 54% of parents want their boy child to attend school, while 46% prefer their girl child.
Despite the numbers for both possibilities are similar, the former can be driven home by the notion that guys do far better in school than girls and have a bigger return on their education than girls.Also, it is often assumed that girls will fall pregnant before graduating.Some parents consider that spending on a girl's education is an unproductive use of money and that the sooner the girl marries, the better.By juxtaposing the outcome of the educational experiences of girls and boys previously, it unravels that girls suffer greater problems and the need to find gender-education intersections that require focused interventions.
The problem of girl education in Ghana is still a pressing issue that needs to be addressed from all angles (Adomako Gyasi et al., 2020).At the 2022 International Day of the Girl (IDG) and the 25th anniversary of the establishment of the Girls Education Unit (GEU), the Director of GEU of the Ghana Education Service (GES) indicated that administrative barriers to the education of girls had been removed.To fully address this issue, it is imperative to first understand the underlying reasons for gender imbalances in schooling (Seidu et al., 2022).This study seeks to identify and address the socio-cultural and economic factors that limit girls' access to education in the Ashaiman municipality.This study makes substantial additions to theoretical frameworks as well as the current body of literature.For starters, it enriches the conversation on gender empowerment ideas by digging into the subtle interplay between education, girl empowerment, and some socio-cultural and economic factors.By understanding these, researchers and policymakers can develop targeted solutions to narrow the gender gap and guarantee girls have a comparable opportunity to formal education.

Literature review
In this section of the study, an attempt is made to examine available literature that has been offered as major explanations for the state of girls' participation in education.

Migration and girl child education
Migration involves the temporary or permanent relocation of people across space for various causes, either within a country or between countries (Geddes et al., 2019).Child migration involves any individual, under the age of 18 years.It can be driven by various reasons such as economic, social, political, or environmental factors (McLeman & Gemenne, 2018).Migration can have an influence on female child education in both good and bad ways.On the positive side, migration can provide better economic opportunities for families, and this can lead to increased investments in education, particularly for girls (Ichou & Wallace, 2019;Vollset et al., 2020).Furthermore, migration can also provide opportunities for girls to receive education in different languages, which can improve their chances of success in the future.This factor was highlighted in Morrice et al.'s report on the effect of language learning on the level of integration of refugees who migrated to the United Kingdom (Morrice et al., 2021).The study's findings confirmed language as a factor in improving lives after migration.On the other hand, migration can also have negative impacts on girl child education, such as reducing the time and resources available for girls to attend schools or limiting their access to educational opportunities due to discrimination and prejudice.Migration and girl-child education are two interlinked and complex issues that are prevalent in many countries across the world.The reasons for migration can be diverse and may include factors such as economic opportunities, political stability, education, and better living standards.It is a crucial aspect of development and has a direct impact on several indicators, including the health and well-being of girls, the economic growth of countries, and the empowerment of women (Cuberes & Teignier-Baqué, 2012).
Rural-urban migration is on an upward trajectory around the world, and it has played a vital role in the phenomenal expansion of major cities in the twenty-first century.It has been an integral contributing factor to Ghana's urban population (Adamtey & Yajalin, 2018).Internal migration of young people, particularly teenage girls, from Ghana's five northern regions to Accra and Kumasi has been ongoing for over 30 years, with no specific plans in place to stem the tide, which is harming Ghana's workforce nationwide (Ansong, 2022).These migrants undertake unskilled jobs.In the works of Awumbila, children as young as 8 years are participating in the north-south migration and some are forced into child labor in the cities of Ghana (Bermudez et al., 2020).Major cities such as Accra and Kumasi, among others, are teeming with youngsters involved in diverse vocations such as street selling and housework, the majority of whom are from the country's northern regions (Cobbinah et al., 2020).Even though they are children (especially girls as young as 8 years), most of them are frequently seen working as laborers in Accra.
Migration and female child education have a complicated and multifaceted relationship.However, the negative impacts of migration on girl child education cannot be ignored.Girls who migrate with their families often face difficulties in accessing education in their new countries.In many cases, girls are compelled to opt out of school to support their families financially, leaving their education incomplete.There are several challenges that girls and young women encounter in obtaining an education in migratory contexts.Girls and young women who migrate to urban areas may experience challenges hence hindering access to education, such as limited availability of schools and a lack of information about educational opportunities.Migration often involves financial stress for families, which can impact the capability of girls and young women to attend school.This can include a lack of financial resources for school fees, transportation, and materials.Also, girls and young women who migrate may face social barriers to obtaining an education, such as a lack of support from family or community members, or social and cultural norms that prioritize boys' education over girls' education.Based on this, the study proposes: Hypothesis 1a: Migration is significantly related to girls' education

Poverty and girl child education
Poverty has many definitions and implications, however aside from the perspective of sociology, it may be understood as a measure of deprivation that defines degrees of need in comparison to other groups and people.Over the last decade, governments, agencies for development, and other worldwide organizations have paid increased attention to poverty.Poverty does not only concern itself with the level of wage and consumption but is normally used to illustrate the extent of poverty globally.It also comprises basic requirements in human development, for instance, education and health, which should be accessible to people to prevent poverty.
Education is considered a crucial tool for breaking the cycle of poverty and promoting human development (Kioupi & Voulvoulis, 2019;Zhang et al., 2022).While education for all children is important, ensuring access to education for girls has been emphasized as an important aspect of societal progress.According to the United Nations, educating girls is one of the most effective ways to cut down poverty and foster sustainable development (Mukhi & Quental, 2019).The relationship between poverty and education is complex, as poverty can limit access to education, while education can also be a pathway out of poverty.In particular, educating girls can have farreaching impacts, including reducing poverty, improving health and reducing fertility rates, promoting gender equality and women's empowerment, and contributing to economic growth and development.
According to UNICEF on the girl education movement, poverty is a larger challenge to individuals in third world countries in terms of obtaining an education and even worse situations for females in countries characterized by patriarchal societies and dominated by gender biases.The patriarchal culture benefits males over females as they see males as breadwinners and providers for the family and therefore becomes logical in that effect for a male to receive education before a female in a situation of poverty (Clark et al., 2020).Social disparities are not only widespread, but also expanding, and a great deal of Ghanaians stay jobless.These issues exacerbate the financial weight of girls in Ghana's northern regions, notably in remote communities where receiving basic amenities is problematic.
The distressing amalgamation between personal poverty and developing girl-child education costs hinders attempts to spur growth and eliminate poverty, while also exacerbating concerns such as child labor (Frimpong et al., 2021).Eppenauer (2018) reported that 10,000 children fail to advance from primary to secondary school yearly mainly because their caregivers are unable to finance it (Eppenauer, 2018).The recent implementation of free secondary education was a strategy to reduce Ghana's high dropout rates.Public funding is not the sole obstacle, but it aggravates the other barriers impeding progress toward equitable access to top-notch girl-child education.Poor households should not waste their few resources on education if the standard of education is low.The children of poor parents and guardians account for high school dropouts.Given our societal system, which appears to favor men in this situation, the girl child remains the victim of circumstance.Costs of schooling influence these aspects, for example, if less importance is assigned to a girl's education; fees are likely to promote gender discrepancies in enrollment and successful completion levels.However, what often happens with a few exceptions in developing countries is that these girls from poor households are subjected to child labor, which is one of the reactions to the symptoms of poverty (Keitzman, 2019).Read et al. (2022) assessed the relationship among parental unemployment, immigration, urban areas, stress levels, and burnout.In their work, they concluded that parental unemployment had a greater impact on the students in Finland (Read et al., 2022).Saravanan and Ramesh indicated that a family's monthly revenue is favorable and statistically significant, and an amount for collaboration suggests that if the family earnings grow by one percent, the likelihood of a woman dropping out of school lowers by 74.2 percent (Saravanan & Ramesh, 2022).Based on this, the study proposes: Hypothesis 1b: Employment status of household heads is significantly related to girls' education Hypothesis 1c: Income levels are significantly related to girls' education

Religion, sociocultural beliefs, and practices on girl child education
Religion, sociocultural beliefs, and practices have a great influence on girl child education.These serve as an instrumental part in molding community perceptions and attitudes about education, particularly for girls.It has been observed that religious and cultural norms have a strong presence in most developing countries and are often the focal impediments to the education of girls.Religious and cultural practices that devalue girls and young women, limit their access to education, and restrict their decision-making capacities have been identified as major barriers to the education of girls (Smith & Sinkford, 2022).The study of the interplay between religion, sociocultural beliefs, and practices and their impact on girl child education is an important area of research.In many societies, religion and cultural beliefs are the basis for traditional gender roles and the allocation of responsibilities between men and women.These beliefs and practices often dictate that girls ought not to be educated and should rather concentrate on household obligations and child-rearing.
In some cases, religious teachings are interpreted as forbidding education for girls, leading to low enrollment and high dropout rates in girls' schools (Kabeer, 2017).However, some religions and cultures support education for girls and view it as a means of empowering women and promoting gender equality.For example, some Islamic countries have made significant progress in increasing girls' access to education, driven by the conviction that schooling is a basic right for all Muslims and that women play a noteworthy role in society (Komariah & Nihayah, 2023).The majority of the world's religions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism, are also characterized by a patriarchal structure, where men are given higher status than women and girls (Chatterjee et al., 2023).This structure has implications for gender roles and expectations, often resulting in fewer opportunities for education for girls compared to boys.For example, some religious and cultural groups consider it inappropriate for girls to receive an education beyond basic reading and writing, and fewer resources are allocated for girls' education in favor of boys'.Similarly, in some religious communities, girls may be restricted from attending school and instead are expected to focus on domestic duties such as caring for younger siblings and preparing meals for the family (Duramy & Gal, 2020).
In Africa, traditional cultural beliefs about the role of women and girls often pose a significant barrier to girls' education.Additionally, poverty and limited resources often result in families prioritizing the education of boys over girls, as boys are seen as the future providers for the family (de Paz Nieves et al., 2021).However, there is evidence of positive change in some African countries where religious and cultural beliefs are being challenged and modified to promote gender equality and the education of girls.For example, in Kenya, religious leaders and traditional elders have played a key role in promoting girl child education and challenging cultural beliefs that perpetuate discrimination against girls (Durrani & Halai, 2020).
In addition, some sociocultural beliefs and practices reinforce gender-based inequalities and disadvantage girls in terms of access to education.In many countries with patriarchal social structures, girls are viewed as having less value than boys and are expected to take on domestic roles while boys are expected to pursue educational and economic opportunities (Davis & Pearce, 2007).This attitude can result in fewer resources being allocated for girls' education and girls being discouraged from pursuing educational opportunities.Furthermore, the pressure to marry early and bear children can lead to girls quitting school and taking on domestic roles at a young age (Delprato et al., 2015).In South Asia, patriarchal attitudes and a long history of discrimination against girls and women continue to limit educational opportunities for girls.The dowry system and the belief that girls are a burden on families are major barriers to girls' education in India, for example (Nag, 2021).In some Hindu societies, the girl child is not given the same importance as the boy child.This is mainly due to the traditional belief that the girl child is not as capable as the boy child and therefore is not an economic asset for the family.Girls are also often given less access to education as compared to boys and are not encouraged to pursue higher education.Based on this, the study proposes:

Teen pregnancy, early marriage on girl child education
The literature on teenage pregnancy and early marriage has grown significantly in recent years, reflecting increasing concern among policymakers and researchers about the devastating effects of these two phenomena on the lives of girls and their families.Teenage pregnancy and early marriage remain major obstacles to the education and empowerment of girls, particularly in developing countries.Despite advances in girls' education and efforts to reduce teenage pregnancy, the problem remains persistent and widespread, affecting millions of girls and their families each year.Several studies have highlighted the complex and interrelated factors that contribute to teenage pregnancy and early marriage, including poverty, cultural norms, and values, lack of education and information about reproductive health, and unequal gender norms and power dynamics.Despite the growing body of research on this topic, there is still much that remains to be understood about the impact of teenage pregnancy and early marriage on girl child education, and the best ways to address these challenges.
One of the key findings from the literature is that teenage pregnancy and early marriage can have an enormous and long-term influence on the education and future prospects of girls.For example, a study by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) found that adolescent pregnancy is a major contributor to the high rate of dropping out rate of girls from school, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (Mbogo, 2021).Other research has shown that early marriage can also lead to a reduction in educational attainment and opportunities for girls, particularly in contexts where girls are expected to prioritize household responsibilities over education (Hyseni et al., 2020;Paul, 2020).These findings are consistent with other research pieces on the adverse effect of early motherhood on young women's health and well-being, including a higher likelihood of maternal and child mortality, as well as reduced economic opportunities and increased vulnerability to violence and exploitation.
Teenage pregnancy and early marriage are two of Ghana's most important impediments to girls' education.It is well documented that teenage pregnancy and early marriage can have a detrimental effect on girl child education in Ghana.This is because these two phenomena can cause girls to quit school, depriving them of the opportunity to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary for their development.A report by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) found that teenage pregnancies in Ghana accounted for 12.4% of all pregnancies in 2017 (Gyimah et al., 2020).In addition, the study estimated that about 14% of teenage girls in the country are married before they turn 18 (Abaka-Yawson et al., 2020).These figures are very alarming and they demonstrate the prevalence of teenage pregnancy and early marriage in Ghana.Apart from the direct effect that teenage pregnancy and early marriage have on the girl child's prospects of accessing education, they also have an indirect effect.This is because these two phenomena often lead to socioeconomic and cultural barriers that can further hinder the girl's access to education.For instance, girls who are pregnant or married are often stigmatized and discriminated against in their communities, making it difficult for them to re-enter the education system.In addition, most girls in Ghana are likely to leave school if they become pregnant or get married because of the financial burden that comes with these two phenomena.Thus, it is evident that teenage pregnancy and early marriage can have a significant detrimental influence on the girl child's access to schooling in Ghana.
According to a study by UNICEF, the prevalence of teenage pregnancy in Ghana is 27.3% while the prevalence of early marriage is 16%.It is also predicted that in every four teenage girls in Ghana, at least one of them has been pregnant a minimum of once by the age of 19 (Karpati et al., 2021).The consequences of teenage pregnancy and early marriage on the education of girls in Ghana are multifaceted and long-lasting.First, teenage pregnancy often results in the discontinuation of schooling due to physical and psychological changes.In addition, the stigma associated with pregnancy can be a deterrent to girls continuing their education (Zuilkowski et al., 2019).Furthermore, early marriage can also lead to the termination of education as married girls are expected to take on domestic duties instead of attending school.The effect of teenage pregnancy and early marriage on girl child education in Ghana can be seen in the gender gap in literacy rates.According to the Ghana Living Standards Survey, girls' literacy rate is lower than boys' in both rural and urban areas (Ghana Statistical Service, 2018).This indicates that girls are less inclined to complete their education than boys due to teenage pregnancy and early marriage.Despite these challenges, there is also evidence to suggest that early marriage and teenage pregnancy can be prevented and that effective strategies can help to reduce the impact of these phenomena on girl child education.For example, a variety of studies have emphasized the relevance of comprehensive sex education and access to modern contraceptive methods in reducing the risk of teenage pregnancy (Ahinkorah et al., 2021;Pepito et al., 2022).Other research has pointed to the importance of addressing the underlying social, economic, and cultural factors that contribute to early marriage, such as poverty, gender-based violence, and lack of opportunities for girls (Gausman et al., 2020;Melesse et al., 2020;Shukla et al., 2023).At the same time, there is growing recognition of the need for targeted interventions and policies to support girls who have already become pregnant or married, including access to schooling, medical care, and various services, along with efforts to address the underlying drivers of teenage pregnancy and early marriage.The Ghana Education Service has introduced a range of initiatives such as the Adolescent Reproductive Health and Life Skills Education (ARHLE) in order to educate adolescents on the risks of teenage pregnancy and early marriage (Adu-Gyamfi et al., 2016).Furthermore, the government has also introduced the GETFund which provides financial support to pregnant teenage girls to allow them to continue their education (Essuman, 2015).While the effects of teenage pregnancy and early marriage are significant, initiatives such as the ARHLE and GETFund have been put in place to address the issue.Based on this, the study proposes: Hypothesis 2a: Teenage pregnancy has a significant positive impact on school dropout rates Hypothesis 2b: Early marriage contributes to an increase in school dropout rates

Intervention measures and policies
The education of girls has been recognized as a crucial factor in the development of societies, both socially and economically.In recent times, there has been raised awareness concerning the barriers to girls' education in Ghana, particularly in rural areas.The government of Ghana, international organizations, and local NGOs have implemented several intervention measures and policies aimed at increasing the opportunity for education for the girl child in Ghana.
The Ghanaian government implemented the Free Senior High School Policy in 2017, which aimed at increasing access to education for all students, including girls.The policy has seen an increase in enrolment rates, with more girls enrolling in high school (Alua et al., 2022;Kwegyiriba, 2021).UNICEF has also funded a variety of projects in Ghana focused on expanding girls' access to education.One such program is the Girls' Education Project, which focuses on improving the quality of education for girls and increasing their enrolment rates.The program also assists girls who are in peril of dropping out of school as a result of poverty, early marriage, or other social and cultural impediments (UNICEF, 2020).Again, the Ghana Education Service (GES) has also implemented a number of programs intended to raise the number of access to education for girls.One such program is the Basic Education Assistance Module, which gives financial aid to girls from lowincome families to help cover the costs of school fees, uniforms, and other educational expenses (Arkorful et al., 2019;Johnston & Ksoll, 2022).Private sector organizations have contributed to improving the access to education for girls in Ghana.For example, the Ghanaian oil company Tullow Oil has supported the construction of schools in rural areas, as well as providing scholarships for girls to attend secondary school (Adjei, 2021).
Launched in 2010 was the Girl Child Education Campaign, an initiative aimed at increasing access to education for girls in Ghana.The campaign focuses on educating communities about the importance of education for girls, as well as providing support for girls who are at risk of quitting school (Alhassan, 2010).The Girl-Friendly Schools Initiative was also launched by UNICEF.The initiative aimed to create a safe and supportive learning environment for girls in Ghana.It focuses on providing girls with access to quality education, as well as addressing the barriers that prevent girls from attending school, such as poverty and early marriage.The government of Ghana launched the School for Life Program which seeks to boost accessibility to education by girls in rural areas.The program focuses on providing girls with the necessary resources to attend and complete their education, including school fees, uniforms, and books (Casely-Hayford & Hartwell, 2010).
There have been several intervention measures and policies aimed at increasing access to education for girls in Ghana.The Ghanaian government, international organizations, and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have all played a role in implementing initiatives and schemes to improve the high standards of education for girls and remove barriers that prevent girls from attending school; however, there is still much work to be done to ensure that all girls in Ghana have accessibility to quality education.

Functionalism theory
As stipulated by Turner & Maryanski (1979), functionalism theory focuses on understanding society by exploring the roles and functions of its diverse components.This theory has roots in the early centuries and has been influential in shaping and improving sociological thoughts and orientations.The functionalism model envisioned society as a complex set of systems comprised of various interrelated elements that work together to maintain order and stability (Nargiza et al., 2023).Thus, this theory analyses how diverse structures, institutions, and behaviors contribute to society's overall functioning and stability.The model posited that these components exist because they serve a purpose in maintaining social equilibrium (Burrell & Morgan, 2017).Moreover, functionalism emphasizes the interdependence of various parts of established society.Changes in one part can lead to alterations in other parts to maintain balance.
Functionalism proposes that society is held together by shared institutions, norms, and values that provide stability.Functionalism can explain how societies evolve and change over time as they adapt to new circumstances.Besio and Tacke (2023) asserted that functionalism has been particularly influential in understanding the functions of different social institutions, including religion, family, education, and economics (Besio & Tacke, 2023).It has played an integral role in discussing social cohesion, order, and maintaining societal norms.Despite its criticisms, functionalism has contributed valuable insights to the field of sociology and remains an important theory for understanding the dynamics of society (Chineyemba, 2023;Tarabini, 2022).Hence, the current study applied this theory to understand how societal concepts such as migration, poverty, religion, sociocultural beliefs and practices, teen pregnancy, and early marriage affect girls' education in emerging nations such as Ghana.The research suggests that when these issues are addressed properly, they can contribute to the well-being of society and the development of education in Ghana.

Modernization theory
In the 1950s, modernization theory emerged as a rationale for the manner in which North American and Western European industrial civilizations arose.It delineates the historical trajectory of progress, leading civilizations toward the adoption of socioeconomic and political systems that formed in the west of Europe and North America during the 17th, and 19th centuries, according to a main proponent.Cultures, according to the concept, evolve in fairly predictable stages as they get more advanced.Development is mostly dependent on technological imports, as well as a number of other political and social developments that are predicted to emerge as an outcome.Modernization, for example, implies increased educational attainment and the expansion of mass media, both of which promote democratic political systems.As means of travel and communication become more sophisticated and accessible, populations become more urban and mobile, and extended families become less important.When the division of labor grows more difficult and religion's public impact lessens, institutions become more bureaucratic.Finally, cash-based marketplaces take over as the primary way of trading goods and services.
Modernization theory provides an explanatory framework for understanding the complex processes by which older or undeveloped civilizations become updated (Bernstein, 1971).As Eisenstaedt explained in 1966, these systems spread to other European nations and, in the 19th and 20th centuries, expanded their impact to the continents of South America, Asia, and Africa.Throughout the 1950s, this idea played a major part in the sociology of national growth and stagnation (Bernstein, 1971).Modernization theory has mostly focused on clarifying the processes through which historical and contemporary pre-modern cultures evolved into modernized entities, generally defined by Westernized characteristics.This transition is closely related to changes in economic dynamics, social frameworks, political paradigm shifts, and cultural orientation adjustments.The assessment of economic advancement within cultures, often defined by measures such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measurements, is central to the concepts of modernization theory.The process of mechanization and industrialization is a critical component of this economic growth (Chulu, 2016).It is worth noting that analyzing the social and economic alterations inherent in modernization processes occasionally reveals an inherent circularity, in which various aspects interact and impact one another in complicated continuous feedback.

Conceptual framework
The conceptual framework is the result of a thorough examination of the current literature and ideas.This framework depicts the numerous linkages between the variables in the research.The framework digs into the essential variables that exert influence in this setting, in line with the study's goal of investigating the impact of socio-cultural and economic factors on female child education.The conceptual framework encompasses the following fundamental elements, all of which are important to the investigation: sociocultural factors; economic factors; dropout

Sociocultural factors
Sociocultural factors include a variety of social and cultural components that have an effect or influence on the education of girls.These include a wide range of topics, including prevalent practices, lifestyles, and community beliefs.Language, legal and political dynamics, religious affiliations, social structures, technical breakthroughs, material culture, and prevalent attitudes and values are all components of these elements.

Economic factors
Economic Factors are the factors of the economy that affect the education of the girl child.It includes interest rates, tax rates, policies, wages, and other governmental activities.These factors influence on education and the educational system of every country.

Dropout
A dropout signifies the premature discontinuation of a girl child's schooling, where she leaves before completing the prescribed years of education and fails to re-enroll.The dropout rate measures the proportion of students or pupils who leave school before finishing the primary schooling cycle, as opposed to those who enrolled in class one (first grade).
The importance of the theoretical concepts is emphasized by their influence on the development of the study's model.Figure 1 below shows the conceptual framework developed for the study.

Research design, study area, and targeted population
The research design employed in this study is a quantitative descriptive survey.The research approach is quantitative, allowing for the identification and analysis of these factors through numerical data analysis.The study area is Ashaiman, situated in the Greater Accra region of southern Ghana and is a Municipality within the Greater Accra region, making it an appropriate location for the study due to its diverse demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.The study gathered data through a questionnaire-based survey to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the issue.The primary respondents of the study were the heads of households within the area.These individuals are responsible for decision-making and income generation within their households making them key stakeholders in matters related to girl child education.This category includes parents, guardians, and elderly siblings.

Sample size and sampling technique
The total sample size is 165 respondents.To choose participants, the study used a combination of probability and non-probability sampling techniques.The non-probability technique used a convenience sample, but the probability method provided equal odds for all elements in the target population to reduce sampling bias.
Using a multistage sample process, the study used a multi-level sampling strategy with smaller sampling units at every phase (Kothari, 2004).This technique is particularly useful when dealing with geographically dispersed populations, where a single sampling method might not yield a sufficiently representative sample (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).Initially, the Ashaiman Municipality was separated into five different clusters: North, South, East, West, and Central.Following that, within each cluster, a basic random sampling process analogous to a lottery draw was devised.This required handing out pieces of paper with the words "Yes" and "No" written on them and enabling household heads to draw one.Those who drew the letter "Yes" were chosen as responses.The goal was to achieve proportionate representation as well as a varied sample within the municipality, resulting in a sample size of 165 household heads.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria
The inclusion requirements for this study encompassed individuals residing in the Ashaiman municipal area who were responsible for household decision-making and earning income.Excluded from the study were household heads below the age of 18 and households without a girl child.These criteria were set to ensure that the study focused on individuals with a direct influence on girl child education and excluded those who did not meet the specific demographic requirements.

Research instrument
Employing questionnaires offers a broader reach and ensures enhanced anonymity for respondents.Again, questionnaires allow participants to complete them at their leisure, and they are more cost-effective than alternative approaches such as interviews (Creswell, 2009;Johnson & Christensen, 2012;Saunders et al., 2009).For data collection, semi-structured questionnaires with Likert scale-type items were used in the study.The semi-structured questionnaires are made up of a combination of closed and open-ended sampling questions.The questionnaire used in this study was broken down into four sections (I-IV).The first part covers the demographic characteristics of participants.This comprises the respondent's age, gender, marital status, education, religion, place of origin, and migration status.The second part consists of the items of the economic factors namely employment status, income, and household size.Moreover, the third part of the questionnaire covers the sociocultural factors that influence the girl child's education.The final part IV presents the items on girl child education.The questionnaire items for the research objective were adopted, modified, and inspired by scholars (Ali & Khawaja, 2017;Bammeke, 2010;Baranowska-Rataj et al., 2015;Fan, 2017;Hashim & Thorsen, 2011;Iddrisu, 2016;Kanoi, 2017;Ngure et al., 2017;Ntekane, 2018;Salm & Falola, 2002) who used them to measure some socio-cultural and economic aspects influencing female child education.

Data analysis
The logistic regression was used to analyze the extent to which socio-cultural factors and economic factors influence the girl child education in the Ashaiman Municipality in the Greater Accra Region in Ghana from the perspectives of the household heads as key respondents.To address this, the Binary logistic multiple regression model for the analysis was explored.The study used School dropout among girls in the basic and senior high schools in the municipality as a proxy for girl child education.With the logistics model, the outcome variable was school dropout which was treated in a probabilistic model with a binary categorical response (household with girl child dropout = 1, 0= otherwise).Modeling the log of this probability response as a dependent variable is referred to as the binary logit (William, 2003).

The binary logistic model was specified as follows;
Let Y represent logð px 1À px Þ Hence the equation is given as Where Exp (,β i ) is the odds ratio of the explanatory factors from the sociocultural and economic factors that influence the girl child's education.From the equation above, P represents the probability of the event,β i 0 s represents the coefficients, while x i 0 s also represents the independent variables.The final logistic model is given as: The dependent variable is denotedy, and the independent variables are represented as x 0 s while the white noise or error term is indicated byμ i .The measurement of variables are presented in Table 1.

Ethical consideration
The study adhered to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.Informed consent was obtained from all participants, outlining the study's procedures and their voluntary participation.
Participants were assured of confidentiality, and their identities were protected.Anonymity was maintained by assigning numbers to respondents instead of using their names.The questionnaire design prioritized the respondents' comfort and sensitivity.Participants had the right to refuse to answer any question they found uncomfortable.Efforts were made to prevent harm to participants, and they were treated with respect throughout the study.

Social and demographic characteristics
The entire number of respondents from households was 165 (N = 100%).Gender, age, married status, religion, education, family size, and work status were all requested of respondents.Table 2 displays the results of respondents of the household heads.

Parental perceived challenges on girl child education
Household head respondents were asked if there are challenges related to educating the girl child and also their perceptions of these challenges.The researcher gave the options of sociocultural beliefs, poverty, and personal attitudes and to indicate to others if they had other views on the challenges affecting girl child education.Figure 2 and Table 3 show the results of their responses.
Figure 2 exhibits the responses of the household head respondents to the question "Are there challenges to girl child education?"In terms of the findings, we can state that there are challenges to girl child education since a higher percentage of the total sample size indicated "Yes" to the question.
The above table displays the results of the household head respondents on their perceived challenges that affect girl child education.According to the table, 95 respondents out of a total of 165 respondents indicated that sociocultural beliefs are the main challenge that affects girl child education.A total of 47 household head respondents also indicated that the main challenge for girl child education is related to poverty.Household heads who think personal attitude is the main challenge in girl child education were 18.The rest of the respondents (5) indicated that there were other reasons rather than the ones mentioned above.Over 50% of respondents indicated that sociocultural belief is a major challenge to girl education means  Adomako Gyasi et al., Cogent Social Sciences (2023)

Yes, 140
No, 25 Are there challenges to girl child education?that social and cultural practices and beliefs of a society are more vital in educating the girl child than poverty and the personal attitudes of the girl child towards education.The same results were seen in the works of Ananga (2013) when he investigated the main causes and challenges of girl education (Ananga, 2013).

Influence of perceived sociocultural and economic factors on the girl child education
The study employed the Binary logistic multiple regression model for the analysis of these factors.
The summary of the model's fitness and significance is seen in Table 4.
The results revealed that the model was significant at a 1% level measured by (X 2 = 64.623,P < 0.001).The model fitness was also measured by Cox & Snell R-Square (0.511), Log-likelihood (64.623), and Nagelkerke R Square (0.764).The model Summary reveals that the model elucidates about 76.4% of the variations in the dependent variables.The coefficients, Wald test statistics, and the Odd Ratios have been presented in Table 5.

Socio-demographic factors
The results depict that the gender of the household head has a statistically important effect on the schooling of the female child.The result reveals that household heads who are females (β = 6.149,P < 0.05) are more likely to have their girl child drop out of school compared to their counterpart male household heads.Again, the findings show that the education of household heads has a significant influence on the girl child's education.The results indicate that a household head with primary education (β = 7.579, P < 0.05) is more likely to have the girl child dropped compared to household heads with Tertiary education.This was statistically significant at a 1% level of significance.However, the results show that respondents with no formal education and or secondary education have positive coefficients yet they were not significant in statistical terms.
Likewise, the results imply that the higher the degree of parents' or guardians' education, the more likely to have their ward's progress in the educational ladder.It certainly confirms the study's outcome since increasing the level of the household head's education reduces the risk of their girl child dropping out of school.Additionally, the results from the study reveal that an increase in household heads who are married (β = −3.759,P < 0.05), Separated (β = −3.835,P < 0.05), or widowed (β = −3.810,P < 0.05) are less likely to have their girl child dropped out of school as compared to households' heads who have divorced their partners.
Regarding the impact of household size, findings from Table 5 show that an increase in household size has a significant impact on the girl child's education.The results from Table 5 reveal an increase in the household size of 1-2 (β = −6.317,P < 0.05) is less likely to have the girl child quit school compared to those with a household size of 10 and above and this was significant at a 5% level.Similarly increasing in the household size of 6-7 (β = −3.923,P < 0.05) of respondents are less likely to have their girls drop out of school compared to those whose household size of 10 and above and significant at 10% level.

Economic perspectives
With the economic factors, the study reveals that the income level of household heads has a statistically significant impact on the girl child's education.The results show that an extra unit in the earning level of households reduces the probability of school drop-out among the girl child.This indicates that households with an annual income level of GH₵10001-GH₵15000 (β = −14.328,P < 0.05) are less likely to have their girl child drop out of school compared to the household heads with other income groups.
The results also depict that; the employment status of respondents influences their girl child education in the study area.Table 4 shows that an increase in self-employment of household heads (β = 2.721, P < 0.05) increases the likelihood that, their girl child will drop out of school compared to household heads who are government workers or are employees.
More importantly, migration was identified to have a major effect on female child education in the region.The results show that an increase in native household heads are less likely to have their girl child that quit school compared to those of the migrants (β =-4.817,P < 0.05) statistically significant at a 1% level.

Socio-cultural perspectives
The results nonetheless, revealed that culture has a significant impact on the girl child education in the region.This work used the various regions in the country as a proxy to measure the impact of culture on the girl child's education.The results from Table 5 show that girls from the Northern regions (β = 2.750, P < 0.05) have a higher likelihood of quitting school compared to those from the Ashanti region.In the same way, girls from Western (Western, Western North)/Central regions (β = 3.506, P < 0.05) are more likely to drop out of school compared to those from the Ashanti and B/A Regions.The study also identified teenage pregnancy as one of the leading reasons for school dropout in the research locations.This threatens the progress of girl child education in the municipality.The outcomes show that increasing the rate of teenage pregnancy (β = 8.893, P < 0.05) in the areas contributes positively by increasing the rate of school dropout among the female children in the municipality's schools.
Similarly, the results revealed that the practice of early marriage also contributes to school dropout in the area.Findings show that increase in the rate of early marriage (β = 4.357, P < 0.05).The results portray that increasing early marriage increases the likelihood of the girl child leaving school prematurely or being a dropout.

Hypothesis testing
From Table 6, migration had a significant effect on school dropout (β = 4.817, p = .000).The finding suggests an increase in native household heads are less likely to have their girl child that quit school compared to those of the migrants.Hence, the findings validate H1a.Again, the results depict that the employment status of household heads influences their girl child's education (β = 2.721, p = .073).H2a is therefore accepted.The study reveals that the income level of household heads has a negative and statistically significant impact on the girl child dropout (β = −14.328,P < 0.05) which confirms H1c.Teenage pregnancy and dropout were found to be positive and statistically significant.The outcomes show that increasing the rate of teenage pregnancy (β = 8.893, P < 0.05) contributes positively by increasing the school dropout rate hence H2a is supported.
Similarly, the findings show that an increase in the rate of early marriage (β = 4.357, P < 0.05) contributes positively by increasing the rate of school dropout and therefore, H2b is further supported.

Discussions
The study reveals that the income level of household heads has a statistically significant impact on the girl child's education and shows that an extra unit in the earning level of households reduces the probability of school drop-out among the girl child.The results are in line with that of Marbuah (2016) who found that people who can invest more in a child's education are those who could earn more income as compared to a household that earns less.In the case of low-income earners, they spend most of their money on food, shelter, power, and other health instead of education (Marbuah, 2016).In the same direction, Work by (Goodman & Gregg, 2010;Saravanan & Ramesh, 2022;United Nations Educational & Organization, 2016) demonstrates that when poverty continues through generations, children's test scores are lowest, and greatest when the financial benefit is long-lived.This could serve as a major factor that causes school dropouts among the girl child.School dropouts are usually high among children from poor homes while the rich continue to invest in their wards' education.
Employment has proved to have a substantial impact on the schooling of girls.The results also depict that; the employment status of respondents influences their girl child education in the study area.This finding agrees with the works of Fan etal (2017) (Fan, 2017).A compelling body of evidence suggests that a trade-off exists for parents who engage in full-time employment while their children are under the age of five.While full-time work undoubtedly contributes to higher family income, the limited time available for parents to interact with their families has been found to negatively impact their children's educational achievements in the long run.Importantly, this analysis takes into account and controls for the influence of family income on the outcomes (Ermisch & Francesconi, 2001).
More importantly, migration was also identified to have a major effect on female child education in the region.The results show that an increase in native household heads are less likely to have their girl child that quit school compared to those of the migrants.The results suggest that migration has several impacts on achieving a successful girl child education in the Ashaiman Municipality in the Greater Accra region.The study areas are among cities in Ghana that absorb a high proportion of migrants who over from different regions and their various rural areas to the cities.As confirmed by Hashim and Thorsen (2011), who concluded that, Accra, Kumasi, and other cities are now flooded with children from the north who have become house helps and street hawkers where about 8-yearold children are head porters in the city of Accra (Hashim & Thorsen, 2011).In 2012, the Ghana Statistical Service reported an ever-increasing rural-urban migration of more than 60% rate.Most parents migrate to the cities and do not enroll their girl child in school or usually have their girl child drop out of school.This harms the girl child education in the areas and Ghana as a whole.
The results nonetheless, revealed that culture has a significant impact on the girl child education in the region.These cultural impacts on the girl child's education reflect the cultural norms of some groups of people in the country.In some societies in Ghana, the girl child is expected to know how to manage a house, because they must get a husband and have children.As a result, some parents decide to send only their boys to school and leave their girl child back home.Some even believe that if a woman is educated, no man will want to marry her.These results confirm the assertion by Salm and Falola (2002) that the gap between males and females in educational achievement is a result of cultural differences and practices that constrain the girl child (Salm & Falola, 2002).
The study also identified teenage pregnancy as one of the leading reasons for school dropout in the research locations.This threatens the progress of girl child education in the municipality.The outcomes show that increasing the rate of teenage pregnancy in the areas contributes positively by increasing the rate of school dropout among female children in the municipality's schools.Similarly, the results revealed that the practice of early marriage also contributes to school dropout in the area.The results portray that increasing early marriage increases the likelihood of the girl child leaving school prematurely or being a dropout.These early marriages have been attributed to the practice of some cultures of the people.These findings are in line with UNESCO (2015) which found that the major causes of school dropout among secondary school female students in Ghana and many other parts of sub-Saharan Africa are teenage pregnancy and early marriage (UNESCO, 2015).
The consequences of modernization and functionalism are indisputably visible in this context.Traditional behaviors are being eroded as a result of modernization.Deeply ingrained behaviors such as child marriage, which were formerly common in society, are progressively going away.These antiquated rituals, now regarded as regressive, are being abandoned in favor of modern rules that promise a fairer future for the well-being of the female child (Mwanahamisi, 2014).The disintegration of traditions has also brought about a decline in the significance of extended families in individuals' lives.The traditional communal living arrangements, where cousins and relatives cohabited within the same household, are gradually yielding to a more nuclear family structure.Consequently, decision-making processes that were previously vested in the patriarchal figure of the household are now shifting towards individualized decision-making dynamics.
As a result of a shift in attitudes, formerly held views have been neglected.Attitude adjustments, which lead to the rejection of long-held convictions, are another feature of this modernizing wave.Traditional modes of devotion, intertwined with spiritual deities and beings, have been displaced by Christianity and Islam.These two religions emphasize gender equality and the importance of equal access to basic requirements regardless of gender.The acceptance of these faiths has also resulted in their many denominations actively participating in the education sector, with a specific emphasis on improving the educational prospects of girls.Thirdly, when civilizations modernize, individuals develop innovative objectives and adopt new lifestyles.This transition is most visible in the enhancement of ease and refinement in transportation and communication.The accessibility and complexity of transportation and communication have increased dramatically.Mobile phone service and internet access have become not just widely available, but also incredibly inexpensive.This twofold advancement has provided the path for ideas to spread quickly.The improved quality of transportation has also created a magnetic attraction towards metropolitan surroundings and their associated lifestyles.Individuals are increasingly drawn to the appeal of city life and have adopted a more mobile style of life.This greater mobility allows people to live anywhere while remaining in touch with rural regions and exercising influence over how important issues are handled.
Collectively, these factors have considerably increased the enrolment of females in school and increased the need for accountability from those who deny their daughters educational opportunities.This cultural transformation has also resulted in an increase in the number of projects and organizations dedicated to improving the lives of girls, particularly in areas prone to neglect and abuse.As a result, the girl's way of life has improved comparatively due to the disintegration of traditions, changes in views, and the creation of fresh ambitions and lifestyles.

Conclusions
The research started with an overall objective of identifying the socio-cultural and economic elements that affect female child education in the study area.The novel scope of this research has been to evaluate the girl child education in Ghana, principally Ashaiman.In the past, most studies on girl education were focused on the northern parts of the country which are seen as the deprived parts of the country.In recent times, however, the realization that focusing on the north in assessing education for females in the country is not sufficient evidence to analyze these challenges in the country.The study brings forth an improvement on the few others that have been accomplished before it.
The outcomes of the study effectively address the objective of investigating the socio-cultural and economic factors impacting female child education.The findings underscore that sociodemographic elements like the gender of the household head, the educational attainment of the household head, marital status of the household head, and household size, alongside sociocultural and financial aspects such as household income level, employment status of the household head, and migration, significantly influence the education of the girl child within the municipality.For instance, the analysis indicates that households led by female heads are more prone to experiencing their girl child dropping out of school compared to those headed by males.Similarly, a household head possessing primary education is more likely to witness a girl child leaving school prematurely than those with tertiary education.The research also discloses that married household heads are less inclined to have their girl child abandon education, unlike those who have undergone divorce.Furthermore, the results reveal that households with smaller sizes (1-2 members) are less likely to encounter instances of the girl child discontinuing education in contrast to those with larger household sizes (10 and above).Moreover, other critical variables include early marriage and pregnancy, employment and income levels, as well as migration.
The findings of the study can inform future policies and interventions aimed at improving gender parity in education and also be used to shape future research on girl child education in Ghana and other African contexts, contributing to the empowerment of females in the region.Ultimately, this research has the potential to lead to more targeted and effective strategies for promoting and supporting girls' education, leading to positive social and economic outcomes for girls and women in the future.Also, this study resonates with the United Nations' imperative of attaining universal primary education, advancing gender parity, and fostering the empowerment of women, as prominently outlined in the 2015 Millennium Development Goals.It makes a significant stride toward the fulfillment of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which places substantial emphasis on the provision of inclusive and equitable high-quality education while bolstering the empowerment of women and girls on a global scale.

Limitations
The study included 165 heads of households from the Ashaiman Municipality.While this sample size may be enough for the specific setting analyzed, it may restrict the findings' generalizability to a larger population.The specific features of the Ashaiman Municipality may not be reflective of all locations in Ghana, thus caution should be taken when extending the findings to other localities.
Moreover, the study used a quantitative descriptive survey technique, with researcher-designed questionnaires serving as the major data collection instrument.While this technique provides useful insights into the elements influencing female child education, it may not capture the entire breadth and complexities of individual experiences and views.Qualitative approaches, such as interviews or focus group discussions, might have produced a more complete picture of the sociocultural and economic forces at work.
Again, the research appears to give cross-sectional data, capturing an overview of the present condition.A longitudinal approach, recording changes and advancements through time, might, on the other hand, give a more thorough knowledge of the changing dynamics of female child education in the municipality.
Finally, to collect data on factors impacting female child education, the study relied on household heads as respondents.The disadvantage of this technique is that the perspectives and experiences of family heads may not adequately reflect the actual replies and viewpoints of the female children themselves.Social dynamics within the family, varied perspectives among household members, and potential information gaps across generations might all have an impact on the quality and completeness of the data obtained.The lack of direct remarks from the study's participants, female children, may restrict the study's capacity to capture their varied opinions and experiences relating to schooling.

Recommendations
This scenario necessitates extensive education campaigns, sex education, legislation, affirmative action policies, and school management groups to address the problems and finally abolish the sociocultural and economic issues that limit girls' education.Governments and policy-makers should prioritize the education of girls and provide adequate resources and support for girls' education initiatives.Furthermore, religious leaders and community members should be engaged to promote gender equality and encourage girls to pursue educational opportunities.Finally, civil society organizations should provide support to girls and their families to encourage them to seek education rather than being pressured into early marriage or other domestic tasks.Furthermore, we highly recommend future studies include a thorough evaluation of out-ofschool females, including those who have dropped out, not gone to school, or joined school late.By considering the experiences of these girls, a deeper understanding of the challenges surrounding girls' education in the Ashaiman municipality can be gained.Furthermore, it is crucial to conduct further research focusing on strategies to eradicate regressive cultural and religious practices that have a detrimental impact on the education of girls throughout Ghana.By addressing these issues, we can work towards creating an environment that empowers and enables the holistic development of the girl child in the country.
Finally, further studies should focus on a framework that addresses the dropout and poor performance of the girl child in Ashaiman municipality.