Use of photovoice in pre-service geography teachers’ conceptions of geography

Abstract This study explores how pre-service geography teachers conceptualize geography using photovoice, a participatory action research methodology. I interviewed 25 pre-service geography teachers who were taking the Korean geography course, about what they thought geography was. In response to this question, they were required to take five pictures of their surroundings, and explain each of them. This process allowed me to extract data in the form of photos clicked by the participants, their explanatory narratives, and interview responses, and to identify themes, which were theorized using grounded theory. Consequently, four themes were obtained. Photovoice-based action research helps the instructor as researcher grasp the status of pre-service geography teachers as learners and guides them in planning future geography lectures.


PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
When a new semester begins, instructors are excited about meeting their students. Which students will take my class? What will be their perspectives, beliefs, attitudes, and thoughts? Moreover, what would they think about geography, and how would they conceptualize it? Most geography instructors ponder over these questions weeks, even months, before a new semester begins. They plan how to connect with students, especially in their conceptions of geography. They try to decipher the knowledge and experiences of students, to help them effectively bridge what they already know with what they will be taught. Understanding those aspects of students' lives that impact their view of geography can significantly help educators in understanding and teaching them. Taking cognizance of students' experiences and perceptions of geography shall help instructors comprehend them and implement adequate educational practices for teaching geography. Based on these arguments, this study is to explore how preservice geography teachers conceptualize geography using photovoice, a participatory action research methodology. It provides a detailed perspective on pre-service geography teachers' perceptions or conceptualizations of geography. It also proposes applications of photovoice to teach geography in the future, and as an action research methodology to explore students' conceptions of geography.

Introduction
When a new semester begins, instructors are excited about meeting their students. Which students will take my class? What will be their perspectives, beliefs, attitudes, and thoughts? Moreover, what would they think about geography, and how would they conceptualize it? Most geography instructors ponder over these questions weeks, even months, before a new semester begins. They plan how to connect with students, especially in their conceptions of geography. They try to decipher the knowledge and experiences of students, to help them effectively bridge what they already know with what they will be taught. Understanding those aspects of students' lives that impact their view of geography can significantly help educators in understanding and teaching them. Taking cognizance of students' experiences and perceptions of geography shall help instructors comprehend them and implement adequate educational practices for teaching geography (Leydon et al., 2016). A researcher, who simultaneously teaches geography to pre-service geography teachers at university, would be constantly contemplating how to connect with, and what to teach one's students. How can we build this connection effectively? I believe that a project using the photovoice methodology in participatory action research would be useful for "connecting with students." I think photovoice is an attractive activity to start a new semester's "Korean Geography" course because it provides students with cameras to create images of their ideas. I was both afraid and excited to begin the course with a photovoice project. I wondered how, overall, students defined and conceived geography. It was important to find the answer, so that I could connect the course to the students' awareness of geography. Rather than convey information about Korean geography unilaterally, I wanted to connect it with what they already knew.
This study deciphers the relationship between instructors and students (in this case, pre-service geography teachers), and how the latter conceptualizes geography using photovoice. It provides a detailed perspective on pre-service geography teachers' perceptions or conceptualizations of geography. It also proposes applications of photovoice to teach geography in the future, and as an action research methodology to explore students' conceptions of geography.

Importance of, and existing studies on, students' conceptions of geography
A common theme in research is the significant impact of the quality of teaching and learning on how students view geography, which correlates with their life experiences. Traditional modes of instruction such as using textbooks and filling in blank maps contribute to negative perceptions and emotions surrounding geography as a classroom subject (Weeden, 2007). Understanding the factors that impact students' perceptions of geography can help teachers appeal to students' interests, and wean them away from seemingly ineffective teaching practices (Weeden, 2007). Paying greater attention to how pupils perceive geography is a key factor for adequately understanding how it is experienced as a classroom subject, and engaged with as a learning context (Burnett & Crowe, 2016). Some arguments focus on the importance of school-going children's conceptions of the subjects they are taught. They state that being able to understand the nature, function, and distinctiveness of different disciplines is an important outcome of school education. Carswell (1970) and Marsden (1995) argued that the purpose of geography education is to help learners understand the nature of geography as a subject, and its distinctive form of inquiry. Others focus on the importance of a subject's conceptions while in the process of learning. Bruner (1960) averred that sophisticated conceptions can be extended to, and support, complex learning experiences. Schoenfeld (2004) suggested that a deep understanding of the nature of a subject takes students away from merely learning a series of unconnected chunks, towards a more coherent approach that allows developing crucial ideas and linking experiences (Burnett & Crowe, 2016). The pupils' conceptions of a subject influence learning by mediating their interpretation of, and engagement with, classroom experiences (Brook et al., 1984). These arguments are supported by increasing evidence from research on school science (Driver, 1983;Driver et al., 1996;Shapiro, 1994;Songer & Linn, 1991), and history (Levesque, 2005;VanSledright, 1997VanSledright, , 2002. They have suggested that students' learning can be influenced, and indeed supported, by their subject conceptions. Driver et al. (1996) synthesized years of research on science education to conclude that learners' responses to observations and ideas are often suppressed significantly, and limited by the nature of scientific study and perception of scientific knowledge itself.
More such arguments are found in the literature on geography education (Knos, 1977;Woodhouse, 1984). St Peter and Lanegran (1993) observed that learners must be able to comprehend the conceptual framework of a subject or discipline to master other forms of knowledge within it. Leat (2000) suggested that connecting different procedures of learning geography can help students create composites that are more important than the total of their parts. Davies et al. (2004) described how students' conceptions of school geography are related to their ideas about the quality of work in geography classes, and how these ideas eventually affect the way students approach the tasks given by their teachers. Moreover, some scholars (Barratt & Barratt Hacking, 2003;Rawling, 2001) suggested that students' conceptions of geography, such as their ideas about the nature and relevance of geographical knowledge, influence their motivation to study it further.
Research has established that, as a classroom subject, perceptions of geography arise from the education process implemented on a learner. Thus, Hopwood (2009) stated that due to the multiplicity of childhoods, childhood should be viewed as a social construction, and therefore, young peoples' views of geography shall vary across space and time. He uses the examples of learned economic, cultural, political and environmental geographies, which he believes will reflect in a young person's actions later in life. This literature review draws attention to the fact that geography is still developing at schools, and continuously changing with respect to content, nature, and assessment methods (Burnett & Crowe, 2016). However, in this regard, empirical evidence in the field of geography education is limited (Hopwood, 2009).
Several studies have been conducted on students' perceptions, definitions, and conceptualizations of geography (e.g., Adey & Biddulph, 2001;Ayden, 2010;Biddulph & Adey, 2003, 2004Brooks, 2013;Catling, 2001;Chang et al., 2018;Dowgill, 1998;Hopwood, 2004aHopwood, , 2004bHopwood, , 2009Lam & Lai, 2003;Lane et al., 2019;Weeden, 2007). Most of them focused on the understanding of geography curriculum among elementary and secondary school students in the United Kingdom (UK). Furthermore, more recent studies have expanded to include studies on students' level of conceptualization of geographical terms and key concepts, and students' level of understanding or preconceptions of geographical phenomena (Arrhenius et al., 2022;Deisenrieder et al., 2022;Schauss & Sprenger, 2021;Trahorsch & Bláha, 2022). However, as in this study, certain investigations also considered the conceptualizations of pre-service geography teachers, who would go on to teach geography at schools. Catling (2001) and Hopwood (2009) examined primary and secondary school students' definitions of geography as a whole; however, most research on students' perspectives of geography emphasized specific aspects of the subject (for e.g., imaginative geographies, nature, pollution, people-environment issues, GeoVions etc.). Norman and Harrison (2004) found that students associated the words "videos, textbooks, globes, atlases, maps, computers, compasses, graphs, and earthquakes/volcanoes" most with geography, and interpreted geography as map-reading or other map-related skills (it was the most common response), followed by work in the travel and tourism industry, world events, and understanding of weather and environmental issues. Further, Adey and Biddulph (2001, 2004 demonstrated that students associated geography with places, the world, culture, natural disasters, environment, map reading, and knowledge of different places. Similarly, Lam and Lai (2003) observed that students related geography to places, natural features, and map work. Hopwood (2004aHopwood ( , 2004b found that students associated school geography with knowledge of the world, other cultures, countries, natural disasters, environmental issues, map-reading skills, and travel or weather-based occupations. Thus, overall, elementary and secondary students connected map-related skills and travel with certain natural and human knowledge part of the school geography curriculum. Although older literature on students' perceptions of geography cannot be generalized to current classroom experiences, the underlying themes such as the changing nature of geography taught at schools and influence of students' perceptions are still relevant. This study readdresses these propositions in a contemporary context.

Photovoice methodology
Photovoice is a methodology for community-based participatory action research, put forth by C. Wang and Burris (1994, 1997, 1999. They were interested in health problems faced by women in developing countries, and developed the photovoice methodology for identifying laborrelated issues that affect women's health in rural China. The photovoice methodology is based on techniques of feminism and documentary photography, including Freire's (1968) critical pedagogy, that emphasize education through dialogue, empowerment, consciousness, praxis, and critical literacy. C. Wang and Burris (1994) used photographic images instead of text to break barriers to women's participation in research, especially of illiterate, rural women.
The photovoice methodology originally allowed researchers to recruit individuals or groups that were alienated from the community, as participants, by providing them cameras to take pictures of their community's lived experiences and document their voices through stories or narratives about the pictures. The photovoice process requires participants to take pictures concerning a topic (mostly community issues), and document their voices as stories or narratives about each picture (according to the SHOWeD prompt presented in Table 1). These photos and narratives act as media for communication between the participants and researchers ( Table 1). The participants share their thoughts and beliefs about each picture and their attitude towards it (Kroeger & Meyer, 2005). These accounts are then presented to decision-makers or policymakers, who are responsible for resolving such issues and achieving social change and justice within the community.
(C. C. Wang, 2006) Therefore, the original photovoice methodology has limited application in schools. However, recently, schools have begun using it as a pedagogical tool by extending its use beyond participatory, community-based action research (Komaie et al., 2018). More recently its use has expanded to research the ways that students perceive certain concepts (Adams et al., 2017;Harkness & Stallworth, 2013;Whitfield & Meyer, 2005). To make this effective, a modified version was inevitable. Originally, the participants in the photovoice methodology were members alienated from a community; however, when using photovoice as a pedagogical tool, they should be students who are the subjects of learning. Moreover, researchers initially provided disposable cameras to the participants, but cameras are now built into mobile phones, which is convenient. In addition, there is no need to limit the scope of the community to places where students reside. This modified photovoice methodology shall be described in detail in the following sections.

Research questions and context
The study primarily investigates how pre-service geography teachers perceive/conceptualize geography, and its implications for the discipline. Therefore, I recruited pre-service geography teachers taking the "Korean Geography" course at my university, to answer the first question that follows; based on their responses, I answered the second question myself: (1) How do pre-service geography teachers perceive geography?
(2) How can a researcher use what I learned from the pre-service geography teachers' conceptions of geography, for future lectures?
The question "What is geography?" has been debated throughout the years, as the discipline changed and developed with time. The debate around the discipline's content continues to influence teaching and learning at all levels (Burnett & Crowe, 2016). I used a modified version of the original photovoice methodology to obtain answers to this question from pre-service geography teachers in a classroom setting. I wanted to discover their thoughts, perspectives, and beliefs about geography, and understand and develop these points of view. The observations shall be part of my future lectures.

Photovoice project: Show me geography
I conducted a photovoice project with 25 (11 male and 14 female) pre-service geography teachers taking the "Korean Geography" course in the second semester of 2020. For two weeks, I delivered lectures on the photovoice methodology. In the third week, I presented the theme for the project's tasks: "Show Me Geography." The participants were given two weeks to take five pictures that best represented their thoughts about geography, using their cell phones. They were assigned two locations; that is, they were required to click one photo each on and off campus, and inside and outside their homes. The last two photos would reveal the participants' conceptions of geography, regardless of a specific location. Additionally, as each group was composed of five people, all of them were assigned five different locations.
The participants were asked to present their narratives about the pictures by pasting the pictures on a worksheet titled "Geography in a Picture" (Figure 1). The pictures attached to the worksheet and the accompanying narratives revealed each participant's personal representations and ideas of geography. These data shall encourage instructors to undertake student-centered inquiry in future geography teaching, and expand the classroom environment, by incorporating students' lives outside the classroom. During the eighth week of class, group discussions were conducted. The participants gathered in groups to explain how their pictures represented geography and engage in discussions on the basis of their worksheets. Their photos and stories or narratives acted as tools that answered the query: "What is geography?" Subsequently, each group was required to modify its story or narrative, based on mutual feedback. They had to develop material for group presentations based on the five completed worksheets in each group. They were also required to draw a concept map, using the ideas and narratives represented by the photos, because a concept map is an excellent tool to outline a group's comprehensive picture of geography.
Photographs of the participants' views of "geography," their stories (narratives) about these photos, and their conversations with the researcher (me) were important components of the photovoice action research. I tried my best to ensure that the participants did not feel that their photos could not be evaluated for their knowledge of geography; they were assured that their photos and narratives were tools for thinking and talking about their ideas and beliefs about geography.

Methods of data generation and analysis
As part of the photovoice project, participants had to click, choose, and interpret the photos that they thought were representative of geography. Thus, the photovoice activity allowed participants to express their ideas about geography through pictures, narratives, and interviews, which further became data available to researchers for analysis. I generated and analyzed the data to understand how the participants represented geography. This study received IRB approval from the Research Ethics Committee of Kyungpook National University, and all participants submitted consent to participate in this study and received safety education from the researcher. The photos, narratives and interviews have been used in this study with their due permission, and the participants have been anonymized with the use of pseudonyms. In particular, the interview between the researcher and the participant was conducted with photos and narratives taken by

Show me Geography
Group name: Name: So far, you have studied quite some geography through elementary, middle and high schools, and university. If I were to ask you, "Show me some geography," what picture would you click? Paste below a picture you took, and caption it in the form of answers (narrative) to the following questions. the participants, and the interview contents were not recorded and the researcher transcribed them directly next to each photo.
I employed the grounded theory put forth by Charmaz (2014) to analyze the data. It is a qualitative research approach first developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) in the 1960s (Heatha & Cowleyb, 2004). Grounded theory is a systematic and repetitive set of methods for constructing "grounded" theories in data (Charmaz, 2014). Its use enables developing themes according to the data analysis process, rather than any pre-formed category. All the photos, narratives, and other data obtained through interviews were coded in order of open, axial, and theoretical coding. Coding is an important step in the analytic process, as it crucially links data collection and development of creative theories for explaining data. The coding process both conceptually abstracts, and recombines data (Holton, 2010).
The data were analyzed for identifying recurring or significant themes in all the participants' photos. Thus, their conceptions have been described not according to any particular individual, but by pooling data from a group of people, wherein variation is expected. This process offers greater scope for generalization, than do case studies of specific participants. However, the true value of this approach does not lie in its capacity for generalization, but in its scope for detailed understanding of phenomena within their contexts-in this case, students learning geography.
This study involved an analysis of 125 photos and their narratives by 25 participants, and interviews with them, through the lens of grounded theory. An analysis is "grounded" if it is driven by data, rather than tied to an a priori conceptual framework. In the preliminary stage of analysis, the participants' conceptions of geography were sorted out. In this context, it is important to acknowledge that individual definitions of geography can vary greatly. Goudie (1986) supplied a formal definition of the discipline: "Geography is the study of life on the surface of the earth." Geography is an extensive field of science with a large number of sub-fields, and thus, its definitions are varied and numerous. Its interpretations are often driven by personal perceptions (Özgen, 2013).
After the initial analysis, seven overlapping themes were identified. A re-analysis led to combining certain categories, and rejecting others. The findings were narrowed down to four themes, which addressed how students valued geography, especially when they spoke of geography as a whole. The more consistently positive attitudes surfaced when specific personal aspects were considered. This fact became particularly apparent when data from each student were examined more closely. It led to a participant-to-participant analysis of data; the results illustrated each participants' thoughts and ideas in their own words. The findings demonstrated that the participants related knowledge, skills and values closely, and several aspects of their conceptions were tied to their personal experiences, interests and ambitions. However, some elements were extended for considering the relevance and use of geography for other people, in a more general sense. I argue that a key strength of using photovoice and grounded theory in research is its capacity to provide a detailed and contextualized picture of how participants think about geography. The participants' photovoice activity clearly demonstrates the topics they considered central to "geography," and their responses to the questionnaire and interviews support these findings. In the following section, the participants' conceptions of geography are illustrated with reference to the final four themes identified. These specific themes concern what participants think geography is, and where they locate it in their lives.

Geography as a comprehensive study connecting nature and humans
The most recurrent theme was that "geography is a comprehensive study of the connection between nature and humans." In fact, initially, the themes of "geography is a study that connects nature and humans," and "geography explores the relationship between nature and humans" were identified separately. Later, during the re-analysis, they were merged as "comprehensive study," as they addressed the relationship between natural science and humanities. Özgen (2013) defined perceptions of geography as comprehensions of the interaction between man and environment, according to personal senses, opinions, and needs. This theme also emerged in previous studies on middle school students. Several studies have revealed that students' opinions about geography are consistent with themes such as people and environment (Hopwood, 2007). Dowgill (1998) suggested that secondary school students demonstrate the three major conceptions of school geography: traditional, applied, and idealistic. Traditional conceptions focus on learning places, and the interaction between humans and the environment; applied conceptions are more practical, and based on scientific methods; finally, idealistic conceptions are characterized by explicit personal views and moral positions. Most of the students who participated in Dowgill's (1998) expressed ideas related to traditional perspectives. Similarly, most pre-service geography teachers who engaged in this study conceptualized geography from the traditional perspective, as a search for the relationship between humans and the environment.
One of the participants used a photo of an encyclopedia on their bookshelf to assert that "geography is an encyclopedia" (Figure 2), while another presented a photo of crayons at home to elucidate that "geography is a comprehensive study, like colorful pencils." This person explicated that as different-colored crayons complete a picture, we live in a world wherein various natural environments, cultures, and people come together to form a picture. Moreover, geography helps broaden understandings of the world we live in, and nurtures respect for diverse people, cultures, and environments, who represent crayons of different colors. Another participant presented the Busan Port's scenery with the title "Geography is the world I am looking at." The photograph comprised a high hill, a dense conglomeration of steep mountains, and small houses in the Sujeong-dong area of Busan, thereby conveying substantial information about the place's physical and human geography. This individual explained geography as a complex discipline that combines information not only about natural land forms but also about society, culture, and people's histories, which, in turn, have changed according to transformations in land forms..
A participant compared geography to mobile phones, stating that the discipline's need is similar to how mobile phones are now essential to humans. Its nature resembles that of mobile phones as multi-purpose devices that allow learning, cultural leisure, and economic activities more than as mere communication devices (Figure 3). Another participant compared geography to a museum, as geography captures all the changes occurring in the world (Figure 4). In essence, geography is living history that relates the past with the present. Yet another participant compared geography to water: "I think geography is like water." As water has its own properties and exists in various states such as solid, liquid and gas, geography encompasses various places through its shared characteristic of "space." It is a complex discipline that incorporates a wide range of fields. Another This is an encyclopedia. It is a book on nature and science, created by classifying and organizing a large amount of data about human activities in the past. The knowledge obtained from these encyclopedias can help us live well. Thus, many parents make their children read encyclopedias from an early age. They convey a lot of information accumulated from the past, thus helping us be wise. Geography plays the same role, and influences us much like these encyclopedias. Geography, which means "describing the land," concerns the space and place inhabited by humans, where various physical and human phenomena occur. It helps us lead better lives by providing extensive knowledge, much like encyclopedias (S1). participant said: "Geography is like a crosswalk connecting nature and humans." In this sense, geography, including both physical and human geography, is an important means for instilling an integrated perspective, and opening up spatial thinking. Hence, it is a crosswalk connecting two points that are otherwise disparate. Along the same lines, a participant compared geography to a bridge that connects two separate places and facilitates access to other areas, thereby promoting exchanges between them. Specifically, geography is a bridge between nature and humans.

Geography as a pragmatic study closely related to everyday life
The second most common theme was, "Geography is a pragmatic study that is closely related to everyday life." In other words, geography is a discipline or subject that concerns practical studies or tasks that are closely related to reality. This response demonstrates geography's relevance for the real, lived world. The participants had come to recognize this through their life experiences. Geography goes beyond the content presented in textbooks, to experiences in our daily lives. This aspect makes it very pragmatic. Therefore, geography is the discipline that is closest to, and most practical for, our lives. This idea is closely related to the applied conception in Dowgill's (1998) classification of conceptions of geography at school, based on practical and scientific methods.
If we are asked to choose the most important and impactful device for modern people, most of us will choose the mobile phone. They have become essential for humans. A mobile phone is a comprehensive, multi-purpose device that enables learning, provides scope for cultural leisure, and allows engaging in economic activities more than simple communication devices. I think that, as a discipline, geography is similar to a mobile phone. Geography is more closely related to daily life than any other discipline, because it studies how "all human activities that occur on earth surfaced." Everything is part of geography, including the clothes we wear, space we inhabit, food we eat, and activities we do for leisure. Geography comprehensively presents all of these. We look up weather conditions, check stock prices, find directions on maps, listen to music, and click pictures on our mobile phones. Geography is similar to this. It teaches us about climates, land forms, cultures, and histories. It also teaches us the laws of human society that result from these (S2).

Figure 3. Geography is similar to mobile phones.
This is a picture of the museum at Kyungpook National University, that I often visit. I took this picture because I believe geography is a museum. Everything in the world changes, and if there is something that captures all these changes (in both nature and humans), it is geography.
Land is continuously being either accumulated upon or cut down, leading to the creation of new strata. These strata either get folded, due to the earth's internal movements, or in severe cases, destroyed. The land we live on now will someday get accumulated upon. In this respect, geography captures the earth's history, and thus can be considered a natural museum that disseminates important learning (S9).

Figure 4. Geography is a museum.
A participant said, "Geography focuses on people, life styles, or ways of living." Another participant stated that "Geography teaches about how people live everywhere." A third participant further said, "Geography is located all across our lives; everything we see around us corresponds to geography." One participant said, "Geography is a study of all human activities that occur on the ground, hence it is closer to everyday life than any other study. Everything is part of geography, including the clothes we wear, space we inhabit, food we eat, and activities we do for leisure." One participant presented pictures and narratives of traffic jams that occur during rush hours in the city, stating that this was geography. At 6 p.m., the road near his house is highly congested due to it being rush hour; this represents geographical theories about urbanization and separation of workplaces. He said that, in fact, geography permeates everyday life, and added that if one explores various phenomena like traffic jams, one would discover that geography is not difficult, but rather, closest to our daily lives. According to these participants, geography is close enough to be located even in the house one lives in, while simultaneously existing as an empirical study that one experiences and directly learns from in daily life.
One participant felt that, "Geography starts with oneself, and expands from being a small curiosity, to the various environments all around." Another participant emphatically said that "Geography is melted into everyday space," and added, "I think geography is closely related to our real life" (Figure 5). He believed that the answer to the question "What is geography?" does not need to be grand or abstract, because the discipline is close to humans, concrete, and always held together. He said that even if one closely examines familiar a landscape, the existence of geographical laws in it would become apparent, since it permeates everyday life. Another participant said, "I think geography, like the traffic lights at the crosswalk in the picture, is aimed at improving human lives. When we will teach students geography as a subject later in schools, they would like it more if we emphasize on aspects related to daily life." Earlier, one participant compared geography with crosswalks connecting humans and nature, but this participant linked the same crosswalk to daily life, through personal experience.
A participant compared geography to light and lighting, as both are essential in our daily lives; in other words, geography plays a role similar to light illuminating darkness. Another provided a stratigraphic picture of the cliffs on campus ( Figure 6) and reiterated that geography is unconsciously intertwined with our daily lives. Yet another participant used a photo of a CCTV on campus: I think that "Geography is melted into everyday space". It is closely related to our real, lived lives. The answer to the question "What is geography?" does not have to be grandiose or abstract, because geography is close to humans, concrete, and always held together. This picture is of a central shopping district in the neighborhood where I live; geography is melted in this landscape that I pass by every day. The commercial area, with a cluster of shops, has not developed at this specific place without reason. It exists here because the necessary natural conditions for building shopping malls, social conditions for attracting consumers, and economic conditions for a commercial district are all fulfilled, and constitute the space's geographical phenomena. If I look closely at this familiar and long-held landscape, I would find that the law of geography is hidden here. Therefore, I think that, as a discipline, geography permeates everyday life (S20).

Figure 5. Geography is melted in everyday space.
"Various studies can use CCTV data, and provide big data which would affect our lives." This person added that everything in daily life, including residence, economic activity, movement, etc., are fields of human geography.
This theme can be derived from other studies. Ayden (2010) examined high school students' perceptions of geography as a concept. It employed metaphors generated by students to reveal how they understood and related to concepts learnt in geography class. These metaphors were categorically coded to ascertain how students perceived geography. One of these categories was geography as an expression of life (the others were geography as place, knowledge, eternity, value, change and development, guidance, and obligation). Burnett and Crowe (2016) also demonstrated that school students' perceptions of geography center on its focus on the everyday world, and its relevance for their daily lives. It explicates their willingness, curiosity, and fascination in embracing geography, which they perceive as providing them opportunities to learn outside the classroom.
Literature on subject choice suggests that some students make choices based on their perception of a subject's potential, in terms of prospects for career development or lifelong learning; the criterion of "usefulness for a future career" carries more weight than that of "liking or general interest" (Ryrie et al., 1979;Stables & Wikeley, 1997). There is evidence that most students feel that geography is useful in building careers or acquiring life skills (Adey & Biddulph, 2001;Hopwood, 2004a;Norman & Harrison, 2004).

Geography as a window to a larger, better world
The third theme is that geography is a window to a larger and better world. If the first theme represents a conservative and traditional approach to the relationship between humans and nature, this one represents a socially critical and progressive perspective. Among Dowgill's (1998) classification of school students' conceptions of geography, it corresponds to the idealistic conception that addresses explicit personal views and moral stances.
Many participants viewed geography as the study of the world and its workings (such as knowledge about, and understandings of, the world, places, and people). Geography involves learning about the world, how it works, and the people in it. A participant said, "Geography is learning about society, and the world we live in, and understanding different people's views." Another participant added, "Geography is about the world, how people live, the environmental, and the weather. It teaches us why things happen, and how to prevent them." Many participants described geography as maps, roads, milestones, compasses, and landmarks. They said, "Geography is all about understanding the world. It's just about world. It creates a picture of the world." A participant said, "Geography is learning about the world and its Behind the building close to the Teachers' College, the stratified soil structure can be seen in all its glory. For regular students, it is just a cliff of stones, but for a geography student, it is not simply so. It makes one turn around to examine it closely, or even disrupt lives, for instance, by collapsing during heavy rains. I chose to click this photo because it demonstrates how easy it is to comprehend the natural land forms surrounding us; in other words, geography constantly affects us. It is unknowingly, and quite extensively, intertwined and influential in our daily lives (S5).

Figure 6. Geography is unconsciously intertwined with our daily lives.
population. One can learn how people in other countries are different from us, and the way they live." Another participant agreed, "I think that geography is an understanding of different issues (mainly environmental) in the world." Yet another participant defined "geography as making me see a world I have not seen" (Figure 7). This person considered geography as a reference book-like study that allowed looking beyond the world one saw and knew. Another participant said, "Geography is a new window to the world". The person based the narrative on a picture of their glasses: geography acted as a tool to see the world more clearly. One participant captured the view outside their window. Geography, much like a computer's window, plays the same role: "What if these windows also existed in our heads and minds? The study of geography becomes this window." The person added that geography, as the clean window, fosters tolerance and respect for others, and acts as the key to resolving regional and international conflicts. Another participant said that geography involves analyzing and understanding the accumulated results of the interaction between natural phenomena and human life, and solving spatial problems. It is a study of the space where nature and life co-exist, and one must consider, respect, and cooperate in these shared spaces.
Many participants stressed upon geography as a "path" or "milestone" to a brighter future, rather than as a mere window to the world's objective facts (Figure 8). One of them said that geography provides the foundation for a creative future. Another asserted that "Geography is the way," adding that it encompasses attitudes of mankind and the land that it inhabits. Another participant felt that milestones and roads represent geography as lending meaning to the space we live in: humans create paths in empty space, lend required meaning to space, and express it as a map.
This picture is of a milestone at a busy intersection between two neighborhoods. To me, geography is something that would show the way, as in this photo. I think geography is like milestones on the road.
Geographical knowledge serves as a milestone for making better choices in life. I equate milestones and roads with geography because geography lends meaning to the space we live in. I think that milestones, that show the path even in the middle of nowhere, and direct one to the destination, are important elements of geography. By co-existing with nature, humans lend meaning to space, and give it expression through maps, as per their needs.
Geographical knowledge is closely related to human life at the crossroads of choice, and guides in making better choices (S1).

Figure 8. Geography is like a milestone on the road.
Geography is the window to a world I have not seen. This is a tourist map from my last tour in Geoje. We could sight-see as much as we wanted with only two tourist maps: one physical map of the major tourist attractions, and another Internet map that enabled looking up the desired destinations even at a totally new place. From this point of view, maps, like considered books, are a medium for transmitting information. The messenger map provides the reader geography as text. Thus, I think geography almost like a reference book, that allows exploring a place beyond how I already see and know the world (S22).

Figure 7. Geography is a window that illuminates the world I have not seen, like a map.
One participant said, "Geography is a compass," adding that it not only informs about a specific path, but the general path to a better world. Another participant stated, "Geography is a landmark," as it reminds people of the various areas where humans live, and their life patterns; in this sense, geography is itself a landmark. A third participant held that "Geography is a traffic light at crosswalks," for its potential to improve human life. Thus, geography is useful to explain inconvenience, danger, and anything else in daily life that needs to be resolved. Another participant observed that, "Geography is like a milestone on the road": human life and geography are deeply related, and from this point of view, geographical knowledge serves as a milestone for making better choices in life. This person added that geographical knowledge, that closely resembles human life at the crossroads of choice, guides in making good choices. This theme presents a somewhat different perspective than previous studies on middle school students did, in that the participants (pre-service geography teachers) did not focus on geography's functional aspects, but employed maps and compasses as metaphors for explaining the world. It could be because, in the aforementioned older studies, middle school students conceptualized geography as closely related to map reading or productive activities. Some of the other comments refer to geography as concerning events and changes in the world (Adey & Biddulph, 2001). In contrast, middle school students conceptualized geography merely as map work or map reading. Other studies have specifically investigated students' opinions on which skills they had gained by studying geography. Map reading was the most common skill associated with geography, in terms of perceptions of life skills by students who wished to be pilots, work in the leisure industry, or travel (for e.g., Hopwood, 2004aHopwood, , 2004b. However, the participants in this study differed in their use of map as a metaphor for geography's potential as a window to the outside world. The way that geography is taught plays a key role in students' understanding of the world, and their place within it. Stannard (2015) argued that the social sciences are now more important than ever, and should be given more prominence in the curriculum. For many people, teaching geography is an opportunity for creating a better world (Lambert & Morgan, 2011). Wright (2000) stated that, arguably, while an appreciation of our globe is the most important topic in geography, lessons today only teach bits and pieces about the world. This truth poses the danger of losing the global vision and is supported by my findings.

Geography as a study of human activities on various spatial scales
The final theme is that geography is the study of human activities (for e.g., sustainable development, spatial inequality) occurring at various scales. Walford's (1996) "spatial" approach to school geography is useful for situating such ideas, with relation to existing arguments about its nature. Spatial ideas about school geography can be described through a "scientific" approach (Slater, 1996), that focuses on spatial patterns and variations. The incorporation of such spatial elements on various scales, into explanations of physical phenomena, is close to the approach encouraged by Chalmers et al. (2002). However, the participants in this study said that as a subject, geography deals with spatial issues that go beyond this empirical perspective. World problems were often cited as central to geography's concerns, with particular emphasis on environmental and developmental issues. Students tended to see geography as the study of various problems or issues, especially regarding spatial inequality, such as sustainable development (understanding and awareness of problems such as environment and natural disasters).
One participant said, "Geography is everywhere," while another added, "Geography is all about everything on earth." Yet another said, "Geography is all about everything on space," while another added, "Anything on earth could be geography." These comments suggest that curiosity and fascination do not exceed local-level phenomena. Lambert (2005) demonstrated that unlocking the full potential of classroom geography as an educational resource can totally change the way we see the world; for example, the meaning of place and the significance of scale (local, regional, national, international and global) would be renewed.
The participants used metaphors to illustrate this aspect. One thought that geography is like "water" (Figure 9). He said that just as water has its own properties, and exists in various states like solid, liquid, and gas, geography exists in various places through the common characteristic of space. One participant thought of geography as a "pattern," wherein various elements exist in the "space" where our lives interact and accumulate (Figure 10): the world we live in is a pattern drawn by water and soil in space; the pattern is geography, and this geography is our life. Some participants envisaged geography as a study of issues that occur in space. They believed that geography is a medium connecting humans and space, that solves the various issues arising in space. Another participant said that geography is like a "stone bridge" that connects humans to space, and explores various issues occurring in space, on the basis of human and natural processes in space. Another participant said that as a discipline, geography explores all the spatial phenomena and problems existing on the surface. Another held that while space constraints have decreased with the development of the Internet, space remains important, and geography is a study of space. "We may think that geography has nothing to do in the world of the Internet. Now, I can experience the world without having to go anywhere. As a result, many do not consider geography very important. However, I think geography is more important now, when the world's restrictions have disappeared." This person added that in modern times, geography goes beyond knowing about land forms, climate, and economy, and acts as a medium shared by different people. Furthermore, another participant said, "Geography is a discipline that solves spatial inequality and problems. Various issues and problems arise in space. As these spatial problems consider space from different perspectives, we try to solve them in different ways. I think it is My younger brother, a golfer, practices for hours a day to get the results he wants.
When he had just begun exercising, he got blisters on his hands, and as the training progressed, they turned into calluses, and his fingers got bent. This made me think how the changed shape of his hand reflected his accumulated efforts, and the life that he was charting for himself (In the picture, the calluses have been removed several times, and hence are faint). The same is true for geography. The world we live in is a "pattern" of water and soil in space. Humans adapt to results of their efforts, and are constantly drawing their "own patterns." These patterns differ from person to person, and country to country; they interact freely, and accumulate over time. Just as we push the calluses coolly, if we don't like them, we also transform patterns to suit our tastes. The "difference" in the beauty of these patterns is also determined by us. Such patterns represent "geography," and thus, geography is "life" (S17).

Figure 10. Geography is a pattern formed by water and soil in space.
I think geography is like water. Just as water has its own properties, and exists in various states like solid, liquid, and gas, geography exists in various places, through the common characteristics of space. Just as water changes its properties and colors easily when material like paint falls into it, geography helps one live in various areas, and cope with changes. For instance, just like multiple water droplets condensed on the outside of a cup, geography is a complex discipline with various sub-disciplines (S19). geography that provides an adequate perspective for solving these spatial problems as justly as possible." The main theme underlying respect for various points of view, opinions, cultures, and environments is the question of whether geography is value-neutral. A key skill, that is perceived as a "gain" from studying geography, is the ability to listen to other viewpoints, and be open-minded about problems and issues affecting the world (Hopwood, 2004b).

Discussion
All the 25 pre-service geography teachers who participated in this study shared a similar sense of geography but with certain potent qualitative differences. It would be inappropriate to draw generalized conclusions from such a small sample, especially with regard to particular ideas held by learners. However, it is reasonable to present these variations, as they indicate the nature of students' conceptions at the individual level and elucidate the different ways in which geography features in them.
The participants observed and photographed different objects that they thought were representative of geography, at various locations: inside and outside their homes, and on and off campus. They also provided narratives for each photo. Their details and examples illustrate their wideranging conceptions of geography. They viewed geography as concerning the world, people, their ways of life, countries, and world problems; they considered it a dynamic subject that incorporated multiple viewpoints. Although students' visual representations of geography are similar in many ways, they also have significant differences. Most of the students' perceptions of geography focused on the discipline's attention to the everyday world and its relevance for people's daily lives. While some participants demonstrated a realistic knowledge of geography, others employed visual representations that seemingly did not have much to do with it. In the case of the latter, the narratives creatively employed several metaphors and symbols to explain geography. Simultaneously, while some used their images effectively, others could not provide convincing narratives.
Another feature of the participants' photographs is that they represented geography in a limited sense. In a seminal work by Pattison in the 1960s, basic geographical concepts were sought to be defined, so that academicians' works could be easily understood by laypeople. Pattison (1964) identified four traditions: the spatial (or location) tradition, area studies (or regional) tradition, man-land tradition, and earth science tradition. Murphy (2014) updated this work by proposing three cross-cutting themes-spatial relationships, place characterization, and geographical context-that built upon the five geographical themes put forth by the Joint Committee on Geographic Education (1984): location, place, human-environment interaction, movement, and regions. These traditions/themes encapsulate geographical concepts that have been explored and refined over time. Several photos of human geography included familiar cities, industries, and populations; photographs of physical geography such as of land forms, climatic conditions, or vegetation were few. However, the participants went further by re-enacting the relationship between humans and nature. Catling (2001) questioned sixth graders at an English elementary school: "What do you think geography is?" This query was central to the study on students' definitions and conceptions of geography. Catling (2001) concluded that the answer to this question had four main components. The most common was map work, followed by knowledge of countries, the world, and localities. The respondents provided a very specific answer to what geography was, which reflected related elements of the England national curriculum. Most children emphasized the traditional aspects of geography. Meanwhile, studies on conceptions of geography among secondary school students in the UK (for e.g., Hopwood, 2009) found that their conceptions were similar to geography's key concepts, that include space, place, sustainable development, and the human-environment relationship; these conceptions are more comprehensive and abstract than those of elementary school students. However, my study of pre-service geography teachers found differences in conceptions of geography at a more comprehensive and abstract level.
The participants in this study were quite aware about the importance of learning various key geographical concepts such as space, scale, nature, humanities, and the human-environment relationship; however, their understanding of place-specific, regional learning was low. This fact is contrary to the findings of Hopwood (2004a)'s research on ninth graders in the UK, according to which, most secondary school students in England emphasized the importance of regional learning: "It is important to know where the countries are, and what they are like. I think geography is about learning about the world and countries. Geography is the study of the countries in the world." This difference can be attributed to the neglect of regional geography education, as Korea's secondary-level geography curriculum has systematically-arranged content. Although regional geography is a traditional component of geography education, it remains essential; thus, it is necessary to inculcate a balanced sense of geography among students, while emphasizing learning about local places.
Contextualizing students' ideas about geography in this manner makes it clear how, for some, geography is experienced as a discipline wherein issues stemming from the unique character of particular places are considered a reflection of broader spatial patterns. Simultaneously, for some other students, notions of location, and spatial variations, are objects of learning in themselves, and situated alongside other modes of enquiry. This fact suggests that we should be concerned not only with learners' ideas about space and place in geography but also about the relationship between them, and their perspectives of the subject and the learning they undertake within it. Situating specific concepts with relation to a learner's ideas about geography becomes possible when the focus is on other themes such as sustainable development, human-environment relations, natural hazards, and so on. Focusing exclusively on a particular concept, without paying attention to the ideas and opinions that exist alongside, obstructs understanding the complexity and variation in students' conceptions and learning experiences of geography. Hopwood (2009) suggested that student learning be mediated through loosely related ideas, rather than a strict or prescriptive set of concepts. The study stressed the fact that while some scholars believed that students must know particular concepts that are characteristic of the discipline, others argued that certain conceptions support learning more effectively than others. It is also important to note that, as mental abstractions, the very idea of concepts can be problematic, because there are differences even among phenomena related to a specific concept (Cox & Alexander, 2005). I had assumed that the participants would "see" geography more readily than reading it, and hence asked them to visualize it. It is because it is usually difficult to understand the concept of geography as a language representation, but the same becomes possible when linguistic and visual representations are made together. Photos and narratives by pre-service geography teachers, describing their thoughts about the discipline, revealed their beliefs and values about it. In addition, they can guide them in conducting student-centered activities, when they will subsequently teach geography in classrooms, and enable them to reflect on their classes. Moreover, through such activities, instructors can learn about, and from, their students. This interactive process can ultimately help develop effective teaching methods.
This photovoice-based action study helped me develop follow-up teaching methods. Photovoice caught the attention of pre-service geography teachers, and allowed them to express and explain their geographical knowledge. In other words, it empowered the study's participants to make their voices heard, and transformed them into subjects of the class. In the past, I used to observe the pre-service geography teachers' learning attitudes in the classroom by relying on records such as their profiles and grades. However, as a student-centered tool, photovoice made me aware of their individual lives and voices.
These findings provide insights into what students perceive as geographical knowledge, the factors influencing these perceptions, and how these translate practically into a classroom setting. They also reveal the potential for improving students' perceptions about learning geography, and the skills necessary for academic and personal development. Furthermore, the findings act as evidence in implementing changes in secondary students' learning processes (Burnett & Crowe, 2016). Burnett and Crowe (2016) found that students held teachers highly responsible for their learning outcomes. They highlighted certain characteristics of teachers such as enthusiasm, helpfulness, reliability, and recognition of students' hard work.
Evidently, there are several influences on students' perceptions of geography, such as parents, media, and personal experiences. However, these findings suggest that teachers wield the most significant influence, with regard to the content and delivery of geographical material. Moreover, future career prospects also play a role in students' perceptions. The details and content of these concepts partly reflect the National Curriculum framework that Korean geography teachers work with, alongside the teachers' decisions, practices, and characteristics. The lessons imparted also influence students' perceptions of geography taught at school. The teachers' influence on students' perceptions of geography became even clear through my interviews with them. They agreed that it is better if geography is taught by specialized teachers, as it directly influences students' overall perceptions of the discipline.
In the future, this study can be extended beyond conception of geography to reveal how students conceptualize key concepts of geography (e.g., space and place, scale, region, human and nature, connection and interdependence, etc.). In addition, the photovoice project, which reveals students' level of conception for these key concepts, has the benefit of not only grasping students' readiness for learning and raising metacognition, but also comparing other students' level of conception.

Conclusion
This study demonstrates that students' conceptions of geography are highly personalized, and draw from personal experiences and preferences. Individual learners hold different ideas and opinions about geography, and have different learning experiences, thus leading to combinations of ideas that vary from person to person. This study was informed by broader arguments about the nature of conceptions about a discipline, that emerge from studies in other subject areas. The multifarious ideas and opinions of this study's participants did not cohere around singular themes but were rather loosely related, and in some cases, dependent on the context. In light of this study's findings, it seems possible that students' conceptions of geography do not consistently function as a singular, coherent, and conceptual framework. Instead, learning is mediated by various related ideas, some of which may be relevant in certain circumstances but not in others. Studies of this kind elucidate how learners themselves experience and interpret geography. The findings suggest that students actively construct their personal understandings of geography. Further research on students' understanding of geography, and the influences on the development of students' sense of geography, is needed (Catling, 2001).
This study also questions the extent to which certain conceptions are more desirable than others. While some may argue in favor of particular conceptions from a standpoint rooted in the nature of geography as a subject discipline, other may suggest on the basis of evidence that some conceptions support learning more effectively than others. Hopwood (2007) provided an initial framework for discussing the role that classroom teachers play in leading students towards certain views of a discipline, and learning within it. The challenge now is exploring how multifaceted ideas and opinions feature in the process of learning, and influence the outcomes.
It is crucial for a teacher to understand that students come from various backgrounds, and have different life experiences and worldviews. This approach means that we must develop best practices for addressing these variations, that would be suited to their locations in life and learning journeys. From this study, I gather that one cannot control the external factors that influence a student's perception of a classroom subject, such as travel and lack of life experience; however, one can control aspects within the classroom. By appealing to students' interests, understanding the common factors that impact their worldview, helping them find relevance in the curriculum, and fostering a positive relationship with them, I can boost students' perceptions of the subject in the classroom.
This study not only helped me understand my students, but also myself, as an educator. The findings greatly impacted my teaching practices while conducting the study, and even later. It enabled me to see how students perceived their life experiences as influencing their view of geography as an academic subject, through the roles played by travel, relationship to a geographic location, relevance for life experiences, and their worldviews. As I continue my journey of educating children, I shall remember the lessons, both in the near future and for years to come. Hopwood (2011) noted that we must accept the fact that conceptions of geography cannot be re-shaped by simply changing what or how something is taught. Young people lie at the heart of geography's future, and must play a role in shaping it. Thus, future research must explore different national and international contexts.
As an action research and pedagogical tool, photovoice allows instructors to follow a more responsive, student-centered model of instruction, that extends classes to students' lives. It also enables them to critically analyze and execute their pedagogies in a systematic manner. Photovoice is also effective in obtaining emotional responses from students, instead of losing objectivity to knowledge. By collecting data from the photovoice project, and analyzing students' activities, the instructor can constantly reflect on their class. This photovoice-based action research project can substantially help instructors. The pre-service geography teachers were very interested in taking pictures, and writing narratives about their photovoice activities, and seemed to enjoy the peer-group activities. Thus, photovoice activities are effective pedagogical tools for catching students' attention in student-centered instruction. Photovoice provides insight on students' beliefs and values, in relation to the content prescribed by the instructor in advance. Allowing students to present their thoughts about geography visually and narrating stories about them can be a powerful pedagogical tool in understanding them, and improving classes. Although the application of such content in classroom settings is limited, the activity would be a beneficial practice and do more than merely supply evidence.