Global Citizenship and Southern Africa Liberation History Education in Southern Africa: A 21st Century Socio-legal Perspective

Abstract This article presents key findings of a desktop study on the extent of integration of global citizenship education (GCED) and Southern Africa Liberation History (SALH) education in the secondary schools’ curricula in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Seychelles, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The aim of the study was to ascertain how education can be utilised as a tool to create future citizens who can think locally, regionally, and internationally as members of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) and as part of the envisioned new world order. As such, the study sought to understand how GCED and SALH principles have been incorporated into the curricula of the selected countries. Desk research indicated that while SALH education is neither adequately integrated into curricula nor is it taught adequately (or particularly) in SADC, GCED is integrated into secondary school curricula in SADC. The study then offered a recommendation for policymakers on how to implement consistent methods for including SALH education and GCED in the curricula of secondary schools in the SADC Region. The recommendation has since led to the adoption of the Roadmap for integrating GCED and SALH in teaching and learning in SADC Member states in 2021–2022.


PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
In a progressively more globalised world, emphasis is increasingly being placed on the significance of attitudes, values and communication skills as crucial educational competencies required by individuals to optimally function as global citizens. Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) seeks, " . . . to carry forward its vision of peace, freedom, reconciliation, social cohesion, solidarity, resilience and development for the generations to come". To realise this vision, global citizenship education (GECD) and Southern Africa Liberation History (SALH) education could potentially play a central role in fostering responsible citizenship values in the region. GCED and SALH values and/or principles are complementary and form part of the other. This article presents key findings of a desktop study on the extent of integration of GCED and SALH education in the secondary schools' curricula in selected SADC countries. The findings of this article have already led to the adoption of a roadmap on GCED and SALH education in SADC.
policymakers on how to implement consistent methods for including SALH education and GCED in the curricula of secondary schools in the SADC Region. The recommendation has since led to the adoption of the Roadmap for integrating GCED and SALH in teaching and learning in SADC Member states in 2021-2022.

Introduction
In Southern Africa, and the rest of the world, particularly in the context of the emergent new world order, people and society are greatly benefiting from the right to education in the rapidly changing 21 st Century, which is influenced by the introduction of artificial intelligence, the fourth and fifth industrial revolutions, as well as radical indigenisation and transformation policies. 1 Education is essential for creating lasting peace and sustainable development, as well as being crucial for human, social, and economic growth. 2 Moreover, education is a significant tool for realising everyone's potential, upholding human dignity, and advancing both individual and societal wellbeing. As such, countries in the world must uphold and carry out the right to education at the national level when they have ratified or acceded to international standards and instruments that recognise it. This is attributed to the fact that the right to education is, 1) an empowerment right, 2) lifts marginalised groups out of poverty, 3) an indispensable means of realising other rights, and 4) contributes to the full development of the human personality and global relations (Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights' General Comment 13 on the right to education (paragraph 1)).
The right to education is included in the constitutions of many nations, and it is implemented through the adoption of applicable laws and regulations 3 . Even while the right to education is broadly recognised, there may be variations in how it is actually put into practice at the national level depending on the needs of each State. For instance, curricula may consider social, political, historical, cultural, and global demands. The goal of contemporary educational systems is to improve citizens' comprehension of and engagement with social, political, cultural, and global issues. The importance of attitudes, beliefs, and communication abilities as essential skills needed by people to effectively act as global citizens is being emphasized more and more (OECD, 2018;UNESCO, 2017b). In studying the concept of global competence and its implications for education, for example, the OECD emphasizes several types of global education such as intercultural education, global citizenship education, and education for democratic citizenship (Council of Europe, 2016;OECD, 2018, p. 7;UNESCO, 2014a). 4 The OECD defines global competence as, " . . . the capacity to examine local, global and intercultural issues, to understand and appreciate the perspectives and world views of others, to engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures, and to act for collective well-being and sustainable development" (OECD, 2018, p. 7). 5 OECD's concept of global competence aligns with the central objectives of GCED which are to, "empower learners of all ages to assume active roles, both locally and globally, in building more peaceful, tolerant, inclusive and secure societies." To construct global competency from a cultural perspective, the OECD employs literature, concepts, and frameworks of global citizenship, among other models (OECD, 2018, p. 19). 6 Global citizenship is said to have developed in "a Western, Euro-American framework" (OECD, 2018, p. 19). However, it may be found in many countries and cultures throughout the world, including Southern Africa. 7 It is therefore not surprising that the OECD uses the African philosophy of Ubuntu to provide an additional viewpoint on what constitutes global competency. The Zulu adage "Umuntu Ngumuntu Ngabantu" -which implies that a person is a person because of others-has primarily been regarded to have expanded the concept of Ubuntu (Khoza, 2011;Nwosu, 2009). The concept of Ubuntu illustrates a collective identity, as well as humility, connectedness, empathy and compassion. These are all concepts which are consistent with the ideology of GCED. Moreover, the collective context of Ubuntu is understood to be premised on the historical, social, economic and political realities which are characteristic of the liberation history struggles of most African countries, hence this article also covers aspects of liberation history education in Southern Africa. The liberation movement in Southern Africa generated values of solidarity which at the time motivated behaviours and attitudes of unity in the region. This is hardly the case today as xenophobia is now a prevalent fixture in Southern African communities. To remedy such a societal ill, measures which promote learning in schools that promotes solidarity as espoused by the themes of GCED and the OECD's global competence concept, would be ideal. Deardorff (2013) thus correctly noted that in order to summarise key themes across different cultures with regard to global competence (and GCED), the following elements are instructive: adaptation, cultural humility, listening, respect, relationship-building, and self-awareness.
GCED, just like the OECD's global competence, places emphasis on valuing human dignity and cultural diversity. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights outlines constitutive elements of core rights that should guide education around the world. It provides that, "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood". Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights establishes two fundamental principles of human dignity: the first is that every human being possesses intrinsic worth simply by virtue of being human; the second is that this intrinsic worth should be recognised and respected by others, and certain forms of treatment by others are inconsistent with respect for this intrinsic worth. People have a particular moral imperative to respect one another in ways that are limited by some unbreakable boundaries. Accepting this ideal frequently entails assisting others in protecting what is most important to them in life. Respect for the fundamental right to human dignity is frequently related with protection from discrimination. According to Clapham (2006), valuing the equality of core rights and dignity has four aspects: (1) the prohibition of all forms of inhuman treatment, humiliation, or degradation by one person over another; (2) the assurance of the possibility of individual choice and the conditions for each individual's self-fulfilment, autonomy, or self-realisation; and (3) the recognition that the protection of group identity and culture may be necessary for the protection of personal dignity (Clapham, 2006).
According to Nussbaum, a minimally fair society (whether in Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North or South America) must strive to cultivate and promote a core set of fundamental "capabilities," defined as chances for choice and action (For example, being secure against violent assault, being able to imagine, to think and to reason, being able to love, to grieve, to experience longing, gratitude and justified anger, amongst others). Individuals from many cultures and with various definitions of "good" might agree on these key capabilities as the required foundation for living a good life (Nussbaum, 1997). A call for inculcating such capabilities through education should therefore not only be isolated to Southern Africa but to the rest of the world. As a result, while the focus of this article is on Southern Africa, the study's importance to the rest of the world cannot be understated. This is because, in attempting to adopt GCED cross-cutting principles for diverse countries in the world, it is necessary to recognise the controversy sparked by the Western roots of the concept of human dignity and the Western dominance in the discussion and definitions of human rights. In this way, liberation history education would supplement GCED efforts to guarantee a balance of perspectives regarding the discourse. Nonetheless, profound reflections on human dignity may be found in a variety of countries and civilisations. The indigenous African idea of Ubuntu as already introduced in this article, for example, has a close link with the Western philosophical concept of human dignity. Ubuntu translates roughly as "humaneness," and its spirit emphasizes regard for human dignity, signalling a move from confrontation to conciliation (Mogkoro, 1995, para 308). This article will thus emphasise that, while cultural circumstances in Southern Africa and across the world differ, the shared fundamental principle of honouring human dignity is strong enough to question the legitimacy of a wide range of institutions that misuse their power against individuals and groups. Abuses of power against vulnerable persons are not the exclusive domain of war-torn or weak regimes. These may occur anywhere: in neighbourhoods, offices, or schools. Schools, in particular, are places where human dignity is given actual form, since every student is entitled to equal justice, equal opportunity, and equal dignity. As a result, education becomes a critical tool for resolving violations of human dignity in any country throughout the world, but particularly in Southern Africa for the purposes of this article. In Southern Africa, for example, xenophobic insults and attacks on foreign nationals, bullying, name-calling, segregation, and violent altercations are common forms of discrimination. Preconceptions, fear of others, and unconscious reactions to or wilful avoidance of particular groups are also examples of discrimination in Southern Africa. Teaching young people to use human rights as a foundation for their behaviour can assist them in breaking down assumptions, biases, and discrimination, so improving the educational environment and social relationships in the communities that schools serve in society.

Significance of the Study
In most circumstances, honouring and embracing cultural diversity is consistent with respecting and valuing human beings' essential rights and dignity. Globally competent learners should not only have a favourable attitude toward cultural diversity (the above-mentioned attitudes of "openness" and "respect"), but also see cultural diversity as an advantage for society and a desirable aim for the future. Nonetheless, there are definite boundaries to recognizing cultural diversity that are dictated by the inviolability of human dignity (UNESCO, 2001). In circumstances when the two values are in conflict, the potential tension between respecting cultural diversity and valuing human rights can be resolved by creating a normative hierarchy between the two: valuing basic human rights is more essential than valuing cultural diversity. This study places special emphasis on GCED as a pedagogical technique founded on human rights and a concern for social justice, which equips individuals to act ethically and constructively to address global problems and work toward the common good for all. This is an approach to learning which is not only beneficial to Africa but to the rest of the world. It is not a hidden secret that the contemporary global societies are battling against increasing levels of intolerance (Janmaat & Keating, 2019;Verkuyten & Kollar, 2021). There have been noticeable trends of increasing intolerance in continents such as Europe (Rubin et al. (n.d..)) and South America (UNESCO, 2023), just to give a few examples. The United Nations has also previously pointed to growing levels of intolerance against migrants and minority groups in different societies in the world (UN, 2016). Cognisant of the increasing levels of intolerance in Southern Africa (Crush & Pendleton, 2007;Crush, 2022) and the rest of the world, amongst other inhumane practices, the article also placed emphasis on SALH education with the goal of understanding how the African value system of Ubuntu, inclusivity, and the liberation movement's African oneness perspective could be used to achieve learning outcomes comparable to those of GCED. The COVID-19 pandemic offered a platform for ascertaining the significance of GCED and SALH education in addressing global problems. A lot of the challenges around the spread and management of the COVID-19 pandemic could only be addressed by a global citizenry that is driven by people centered value systems and not covert global agendas.
In light of the foregoing description, the degrees of integration of GCED and SALH in SADC secondary schools were evaluated. Both this article and the UNESCO summary report present the findings (UNESCO, 2021a). Angola, Botswana, the Comoros, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eswatini, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe are the SADC's 16-member states. The organization's headquarters are in Gaborone, Botswana. The main reason for the desk review is that whilst the SADC is one of the " . . . most developed regions in Africa, it currently experiences persistent challenges related to intolerance, exclusion, discrimination, and violent behaviour against migrants, women and others who are considered outsiders, especially among the youth" (UNESCO, 2020b). The SADC, which commemorated its 40th anniversary a few years ago, aims "to carry on its vision of peace, freedom, reconciliation, social cohesion, solidarity, resilience, and development for the generations to come" (SADC, 2020). The realization of this goal, the promotion of responsible citizenship ideals in the area, and the support of peace, human rights, equity, diversity, and sustainable development might all be facilitated by GCED and SALH education.
The GCED and SALH education are significantly important to the rest of the world, 8 but particularly to Africa, a continent with a delicate political history which has not been adequately taught to learners, let alone reflected in school curricula in the SADC. GCED was one of the strategic areas of UNESCO's Education Sector programme for the period 2014-2021, and aims to equip learners of all ages with the skills they need to face local and global concerns and take initiatives that advance a more tranquil, tolerant, inclusive, and secure world (UNESCO, 2017a). The GCED's goals, however, cannot be achieved without SALH education because it establishes the groundwork for a genuinely developmental strategy that integrates ethnically conceived cultures and subcultures with their practices, beliefs, and institutions in order to liberate people from exploitation and oppression (Cabral, 1974;Wassermann, 2017).
The SADC Council of Ministers convened in Ezulwini, Eswatini, in August 2017, when they accepted the inclusion of GCED values and SALH education in the curricula. In order to give the younger generation in this area the chance to study about and critically consider the history of its liberation efforts, they asked the SADC's Ministers of Education to operationalize the decision. In the medium to long term, this is expected to develop regional identity and foster social cohesiveness. Implementing Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.7, which calls for the "promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and culture's contribution to sustainable development," will be made easier by incorporating liberation history into the curriculum and syllabus. SDG 4.7 requires all countries to: . . . ensure that all learners are provided with the knowledge and skills to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture's contribution to sustainable development. This SDG 4.7, which is part of the Education 2030 Agenda and Framework for Action, guides UNESCO's work in this area. In June 2018, during a joint meeting in Durban, South Africa, the SADC's Ministers of Education, Science, Technology and Innovation approved the establishment of a regional working group comprising curriculum experts from all 16 of the SADC Member States, to investigate the status of SALH teaching and the extent of its current inclusion in the secondary school syllabus (UNESCO, 2020b). Earlier, the Ministers responsible for Culture had also discussed the significance of involving youth in the preservation of liberation history by integrating it into mainstream curricula to ensure that they receive the opportunity to engage with authentic accounts of the liberation struggle as a matter of cultural heritage rights. This discussion took place at a ministerial roundtable meeting in South Africa in March 2018 (SADC, 2018). This article and the UNESCO summary report affirm that GCED and SALH education have the potential to contribute toward achieving the SDGs and advance emotional learning and development, empathy and transformative education in that they: (a) Encourage learners to analyse real-life issues critically and identify possible solutions creatively and innovatively; (b) Support learners to revisit assumptions, worldviews and power relations in mainstream discourses and consider people and groups who are systematically underrepresented and/ or marginalized; (c) Foster learners' respect for differences and diversity; (d) Focus on engagement to bring about desired changes; and (e) Involve multiple stakeholders, including those outside the learning environment in the community and surrounding society.
The study outlined in this article was commissioned following a regional meeting on GCED held in Johannesburg in October 2019 by UNESCO, in partnership with the Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for International Understanding (APCEIU). The participants urged UNESCO to "commission a comparative mapping study to review GCED content, practices and articulation in curricula and teacher education in the region" (SADC, 2018).

The right to education
The United Nations (UN) is currently promoting GCED in educational systems throughout the world, including but not limited to Africa, Europe, Asia and the Pacific. GCED is a new project that builds on existing UN educational initiatives such as Education for International Understanding and Education for Sustainable Development. All of the UN's educational programs are inextricably related to the organisation's primary concern: human rights.  (2010)). As a result, the right to education will be examined in the context of this article in order to demonstrate that education is a critical tool to be employed in striving towards a successful transformation to a better and more inclusive global society. While it was not an explicit mandate of the UNESCO-commissioned curriculum review, it was evident from the evaluation that without the right to education, there would be no need for Southern Africa to place such a high value on curriculum revision to incorporate GCED and SALH. Further, the concepts of GCED and SALH, just like the OECD's global competence, place emphasis on valuing human dignity and cultural diversity (Ghosn-Chelala, 2020). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in Article 1, describes the essential aspects of basic rights that should drive education across the world. It provides that "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. People have reason and conscience and should act in a brotherly manner toward one another." Education is essential for the instilling of reason and conscience in the human psyche. In this context, the discussion of GCED and SALH must be preceded by and should include a consideration of the right to education.
The work of Peace and Human Rights Education is built upon by GCED, a strategic component of UNESCO's Education Sector Program. The goal of GCED is to equip students with the skills they need to take on active roles in addressing global issues and helping to create a more safe, tolerant, and peaceful world. With a lot of intolerance fermenting in the SADC region, there is need to reflect on how education, in particular GCED and SALH education, can equip students with the knowledge and opportunities they need to fulfil their rights and responsibilities in order to advance a better world and future for all underpinned by value systems such as Ubuntu which place emphasis on treating each other in a humane manner. Many supposedly educated individuals are promoting and encouraging policies that are anti-foreigners, anti-minority tribes and which reflect chronic hatred of people from other nationalities and ethnic groupings. Such disconnects between education and its outcomes prompt the need to interrogate why countries that benefited from the support of other neighbouring countries in their quest for liberation now find it convenient to treat people from such countries with disdain and acerbity. It is in this regard that a brief exposition of the right to education is carried out in this article as a precursor to the discussion and findings on GCED and SALH education's incorporation into Secondary Schools curricula in Southern Africa.
All people have the same basic human rights, regardless of their gender, race, ethnicity, country of birth, colour, religion, or any other status. You cannot give or take them away. Global freedom, justice, and peace are based on human rights, particularly the right to an excellent education. The Universal Declaration on Human Rights publicly and globally affirms their existence (1948, UDHR). Numerous treaties have been ratified by states to reaffirm and legally protect these rights since the UDHR was established. The responsibility of states to respect, defend, and uphold human rights for all are outlined in international human rights law. Regardless of their political, economic, or cultural systems, these requirements place certain obligations upon states. All human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated (Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 1993, para. 5). International human rights law is based on the fundamental and allencompassing principles of equality and non-discrimination. All human rights therefore apply to everyone.
The right to education is protected by international human rights legislation. In Article 26 of the 1948-adopted UDHR, it is stated that "everyone has the right to education." Since then, the right to education has been widely acknowledged and advanced by a number of international normative instruments created by the United Nations, including the UNESCO Convention against International Law, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966, ICESCR). Numerous international and regional legal documents, including treaties (conventions, covenants, and charters), as well as soft law, including general comments, recommendations, declarations, and frameworks for action, have recognised the right to education.
It is critical to stress that education is a human right, not a privilege (Council of Europe, 2010; Irish Forum for Global Education, 2022; UNICEF, 2022). Everyone has a right to an education under international human rights law (See Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Article 12 of the African Charter on Human and People's Rights; Article 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; Article 23, 24, 28 and 29 of the Convention on the Rights to a Child). States are therefore required to uphold, safeguard, and fulfill the right to education, of which GCED and SALH education in Southern Africa are an essential part (UNESCO, 2021b). Instead of the existing trends of hostility and xenophobic tendencies that characterize the majority of Southern African nations, education is a tool for fostering civilisation and the peaceful existence of humanity (UNESCO, 2021a(UNESCO, , 2021b. What is shocking is that in higher education institutions where purportedly educated individuals are employed and housed, hatred of persons from different ethnic groups or countries is more defined (Warikandwa & Chitimira, 2023;Dumitrescu, 2019). These patterns seem to indicate that the region's current educational system is approaching a breaking point. Examining whether or not GCED and SALH education are included in secondary school curricula is one method Southern African states can be held accountable for depriving children of their right to an education to the degree that GCED and SALH education are not fully incorporated in the curricula.

Treaties provide the strongest guarantee to the right to education
While soft law simply imposes moral obligations on governments, treaties are enforceable and result in legal obligations. A state must ratify a treaty in order to be bound by it; signing it is not sufficient. The distinction between ratification/accession and signing is similar to that between soft law and hard law; by ratifying a treaty, a state agrees to be legally bound by it, whereas by signing, a state signals its intention to ratify, thereby obliging a state to comply on a political and moral level.
In addition, in order for a multilateral treaty to become binding, a specific number of governments must ratify it. The treaty becomes enforceable against all States parties once this condition is satisfied. It is also crucial to remember that governments have the right to make reservations or declarations, which may alter the nature of their commitments. Table 1 below provides an outline of treaties that specifically recognise the right to education: Table 1. An overview of international legal instruments that recognise the right to education

Treaty
Key Articles which recognise the right to education UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960) The convention places emphasis on the view that discrimination in education is a violation of rights pronounced in the Universal Declaration for Human Rights. The key provisions are as follows: Article 3(a) -places emphasis on the need to abrogate any statutory provisions and any administrative instructions and to discontinue any administrative practices which involve discrimination in education Article 4 -requires that States Parties to the Convention undertake to formulate, develop and apply a national policy which, by methods appropriate to the circumstances and to national usage, will tend to promote equality of opportunity and of treatment in the matter of education Article 5(a) -places emphasis on the use of education to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It also aims at promoting understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and furthering the activities of the UN for the maintenance of peace International Covenant on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965) The convention emphasises that all human beings are equal before the law and are entitled to equal protection of the law against any discrimination and against any incitement to discrimination. Article 5(e)(v) recognises the right to education as an economic, social and cultural right. Article 7 places a responsibility on State Parties to adopt immediate and effective measures, particularly in the fields of teaching, education, culture and information, with a view to combating prejudices which lead to racial discrimination and to promoting understanding, tolerance and friendship among nations and racial or ethnical groups . . .

International Covenant on Economic Social and
Cultural Rights (1966) The covenant emphasises that the recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. It recognises the right to education in the following articles: Article 13 -places an obligation on all States Parties to the convention to recognise the right of everyone to education. In this regard, education must be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Education must also enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the activities of the UN for the maintenance of peace. Article 14 -Places emphasis on the need to ensure free education Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979) The convention prohibits all forms of discrimination against women. In particular, Article 10 places significance on the need to ensure that women have equal access to education opportunities just like their male counterparts.

(Continued)
International humanitarian law, ILO conventions, and regional treaties, have all recognised the right to education. While some treaties apply to all people, others apply just to certain groups or situations, guaranteeing the right to education. The right to education as guaranteed by treaties is monitored and protected by human rights mechanisms. Human rights organizations affiliated with these treaties (such as UNESCO) typically keep an eye on how they are being implemented through methods for reporting violations and filing complaints when they occur. By adopting General Comments, Recommendations to States, and rulings, they are also accountable for giving authoritative interpretations of treaty provisions, leading to a better understanding of such provisions.
Other treaties addressing certain groups (women and girls, people with disabilities, immigrants, refugees, Indigenous Peoples, etc.) and contexts (education during armed conflicts) have also reaffirmed the right to education. Moreover, the right to education is recognised in the vast majority of national constitutions and is included in a number of regional agreements. Therefore, the freedoms and entitlements encompassed by the right to education include the following: (i) free and compulsory basic/primary education; (ii) right to progressively free secondary education that is both accessible and available, including technical and vocational education and training; (iii) progressively free right to equal access to higher education based on capacity; (iv) Those who have not acquired or finished primary school have the right to receive a basic education; (v) the legal right to quality education at both public and private institutions; (vi) freedom for parents to select schools for their children that adhere to their moral and religious principles; (vii) freedom for people and organizations to create and manage educational institutions in accordance with the minimum requirements set by the state; and (viii) academic freedom for both students and teachers.

Treaty Key Articles which recognise the right to education
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) The convention recognises the right of education for children. In particular, Article 28(1) provides that States Parties must recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity. Article 29(1)(a) emphasises that the education of the child should be directed to "The development of the child's personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential".
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their families (1990) The convention makes provision for the rights of migrant workers. In particular, In particular, article 30 provides that each child of a migrant worker shall have the basic right of access to education on the basis of equality of treatment with nationals of the State concerned. (2006) The convention recognises the right of education of persons with disabilities. In particular, article 24(1)(a) makes provision for the recognition of the right of persons with disabilities to education with a view to ensuring the full development of human potential and sense of dignity and self-worth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms and human diversity.

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
The first United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to education, Katarina Tomaevski, formulated the 4As on the right to education to give effect to the right to education. The 4As are as follows: (1) Available -There is sufficient infrastructure and qualified teachers to facilitate the delivery of free education.
(2) Accessible -The educational system is open to all and free of discrimination, with effective measures being implemented to include the most disadvantaged and/or marginalised students.
(3) Acceptable -The educational material is up-to-date, relevant, non-discriminatory, culturally tolerable, and of high quality; the schools are secure, and the instructors/teachers are qualified.
(4) Adaptable -Education adapts to local demands and contexts in order to address disparities like gender discrimination and change along with society's changing needs.
The 4As speak to the core principles of what the GCED and SALH education advocate. The 4As were formulated by Katarina Tomaevski and then incorporated into General Comment 13 on the right to education by the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1999, para.6). Education, in all its forms and at all levels, must reflect the interconnected and important elements stated in guarantees to the right to education to be a meaningful right. When a state ratifies a treaty that provides the right to education, it has obligations to respect, protect, and fulfil this right. Some obligations are immediate and thus urgent, but others are more progressive and can be met in future. The following are the immediate obligations to the state with regards to the right to education: (a) respect: Refrain from interfering with the enjoyment of the right (for example, the right of parents to choose their children's schools must be respected by the state.) (b) protect: primarily through legislation and legal guarantees, keep others from interfering with the enjoyment of the right to education (for example, the state must make sure that parents and other third parties do not deter children from attending school) (c) fulfil: adopt reasonable steps to ensure that the right to education is fully realised. (for example, the state must take proactive steps to guarantee that all students receive highquality education that is culturally suitable for minorities and indigenous peoples.) The complete realisation of the right to education can be hampered by a lack of resources, like other economic, social, and cultural rights, and can only be attained over time, especially for countries with fewer resources. This explains why some governmental mandates-like the implementation of free secondary and higher education-are progressive. But regardless of budgetary constraints, all states have an immediate duty/obligation to implement the following aspects of right to education: (a) The right to education must be protected by ensuring the minimum core requirements, which include prohibiting discrimination in access to and in education, ensuring free and compulsory primary education for all, respecting parents' freedom to choose schools for their children other than those established by public authorities, and protecting individuals' and organizations' freedom to create and manage educational institutions.
(b) Take the necessary measures to fully realize the right to education using all of the resources at your disposal. Lack of funds cannot be used as an excuse for inaction or permanently delaying steps to realize the right to education. Even when resources are limited, states must show they are making every effort to improve the enjoyment of the right to education.
(c) States should not engage in regressive behaviour. This means that the state should not go backwards or take actions that will repeal current guarantees for the right to education. For instance, charging for secondary education when it was formerly free would be considered a retrogressive action.
States are primarily responsible for protecting the right to an education. However, recognising and defending this fundamental right involves a variety of different actors. According to international law, other actors have the following obligations to protect the right to education: (a) Regarding the recognition of the right to education, the role of multilateral international organizations, such as UNESCO, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, and United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, in providing technical and financial help, is crucial.
The protection of the right to education should be given more consideration by international financial institutions in their policies, lending agreements, structural adjustment programs, and measures adopted in reaction to the debt crisis.
(c) Private companies must also respect people's rights and refrain from violating those of others (See the General Comment 24 of the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, the General Comment 16 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child, and the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights for more information).
(d) The civil society plays a crucial role in promoting the right to education and holding the state responsible for its commitments.
(e) It is the duty of parents to see that their children receive the required education. They are unable to prevent their kids from attending school.
States parties may directly violate the right to education (act of commission) or indirectly (act of omission) by failing to take the necessary legal measures (Concrete examples are given in paragraph 59 of General Comment 13). Despite the fact that the vast majority of States have ratified international agreements recognizing the fundamental right to education, millions of people still lack access to it due to a lack of funding, human capacity, and political will. There are still states that have not included the right to education in their national constitutions or established the governing structures necessary to guarantee that it is really implemented. The majority of children and adults who do not fully exercise their right to an education come from society's most disadvantaged and marginalized groups, which are frequently ignored by national policy. Therefore, there is a need to spread knowledge about the right to education. People are more able to assert their rights if they are aware of them. States are required to keep an eye on how the right to education is being implemented and to report regularly on violations and omissions. In order to advocate for and promote the full implementation of the right to education, and to hold the governments accountable for it, SADC states established the desk review on the incorporation of GCED and SALH education into secondary schools' curricula in Southern Africa. Where inadequacies were seen, solutions would be sought.

The purpose of the desk review and outline of the research methodology
This study was a systematic review of policy implementation in terms of education curriculum design (Newman & Gough, 2020). To that end, a qualitative research methodology was used in the desk review. The desk review was conducted using a case study approach focusing on thirteen (13) countries selected to provide the required data to respond to the research objectives and questions of this study. The countries which formed the basis of the research were Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Seychelles, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
The main goal of the desk review was to look into how GCED and SALH principles have been incorporated into secondary school curricula with the intention of teaching citizens how to think locally, regionally, and globally as SADC members. The review was carried out to provide UNESCO, the SADC Secretariat, and their national stakeholders more time to find appropriate entry points for integration or strengthening GCED and SALH in the curricula. Emphasis was placed on knowledge, skills, competences, values and level of integration of the concepts, as well as on identifying some good practices in the region. The key objectives of the study were to: (i) Determine educators and policymakers' perspectives around integrating GCED and SALH education in their respective countries' national curricula and syllabi; (ii) Establish whether or not educators and policymakers in the selected countries consider GCED and SALH as being a fundamental feature of national curricula and syllabi and if so how they can enhance education in the respective countries; (iii) Identify the level(s) at which GCED and SALH education should be incorporated in the curricula and syllabi in secondary schools in SADC; (iv) Ascertain challenges related to the integration of GCED and SALH education in national curricula and syllabi; and (v) Identify the best practices for integrating GCED and SALH education in the national curricula and syllabi.
To achieve the research aims and objectives, the study was guided by the following keywords/ themes: 1) Global and local issues (Key issues in this regard were, citizenship education, employment, globalization, youth participation, democratic process, gender equality, children's rights, Sustainable Development (Agenda 2030), climate change, new technologies (media literacy and social media), and human rights education); 2) Africa Agenda 2063 and Regional Integration (Emphasis in this regard was placed on the following issues, youth, solidarity, peace, diaspora, African Unity, legacy of colonialism and slavery, cultural rights, children's rights, women's rights, asylum seekers, refugees, terrorism, xenophobia, economic integration, SADC integration, and poverty eradication); 3) Identities and Diversity (Key issues were, Ubuntu, discrimination, racism, violence, sexism, gender equality, assertiveness, multilingualism/bilingualism, bullying, minorities, indigenous populations, tolerance, inclusive society, heritage, and regional identity); 4) Ethical Behaviour and Social Responsibility (Key issues were consumption sustainable habits, fair trade, entrepreneurship, Small and Medium Enterprises, corporate social responsibility, and social justice); and Liberation Struggle History and Shared Humanity (Ubuntu) (Key issues were History of Liberation struggle, Ubuntu, genocide, colonialism, respect, political and economic independence, and land rights).
The following four methods were used for data collection: Desk research, interviews, document analysis, and semi-structured surveys. Syllabi, curricula, and laws were all consulted online, and personal, unstructured interviews with ministry officials and/or teachers and educators in the SADC were also conducted. The information gathered from these sources was primarily used to confirm data from desk research about GCED and SALH in secondary schools in the 13 chosen countries. The 13 SADC nations included in the data collection were Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Seychelles, the United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. A team of six people (who are also the authors of this article) carried out the data collection between mid-August and September 2020. The 13 nations were chosen based on the material that was readily available and the funding that UNESCO had availed for the study. The evaluation also concentrated on identifying the themes and terms utilized in the curricula, such as civil, heritage, and human rights education and the history of the liberation fight.
In order to compare the curricula's integration of the GCED and SALH in the 13 countries, curriculum mapping was used (Greatorex et al., 2019). This is creating a visual depiction of a curriculum's elements and traits so that the individual sections are visible, making it easy to examine and compare (Angelos & Guy, 2011; see also Harden, 2001;Sumsion & Goodfellow, 2004). Particular attention was taken to make sure the method was transparent enough so that other nations might understand it, draw their own conclusions from it, and possibly replicate it. In this regard, curriculum mapping was helpful and allowed the researchers to show the connections between GCED and SALH aspects within and across various curricula. The most plausible mechanism of comparing curricula in SADC was to conduct a curriculum mapping exercise. As with any piece of credible study, the methodological approach must be sufficiently transparent in order for others to understand the process, draw conclusions, and potentially replicate it. However, in the case of curriculum mapping, there is little literature available which explains replicable methods.
Broadly speaking, a curriculum map is a visual representation of components and characteristics of a curriculum so that the constituent parts are visible, thus allowing for easier review and potential comparison (English, 1978;Greatorex et al., 2019). In other words, a curriculum map makes curricula more transparent and demonstrates the links between elements within, or between, different curricula. Curriculum maps are often presented as charts, diagrams, networks, and other graphical representations. Curriculum maps often include the declared, taught, and learned curriculum as well as relationships between them. Therefore, a curriculum map frequently includes what learners are intended to learn, what is actually taught, and what learners achieve, as well as the relationships between them (Elliott, 2014;English, 1978). Clearly displaying this information can facilitate a deeper understanding of curriculum progressions and can be used as a tool for curriculum review and curriculum development (Angelos & Guy, 2011;Burwash et al., 2016;Ervin et al., 2013;Harden, 2001;Sumsion & Goodfellow, 2004).
The curriculum mapping approach used in the study followed key stages. In the desk review, researchers came up with a mapping of commonly taught subjects which incorporate GCED and SALH education using a guide. In order to achieve this objective, the essential stages of curriculum mapping had to be followed. The stages are as follows: 1) defining the study aims and use; 2) deciding which curricula will be considered; 3) determining the curriculum features that will be the basis of comparison; 4) collecting relevant documentation and sources of data; extracting data and input into the standard instrument; and 5) consolidating findings through visual representation. For purposes of curriculum mapping, emphasis was placed on the key elements of GCED and SALH education as a way of determining the existence of such concepts in the syllabi or curricula. These key elements did not need to be retained verbatim in the curricula but could be inferred as regards to their existence in the syllabi and curriculum (The key topics and words presented in Table 2 in this article were used in drawing such inferences). In light of the above-mentioned objectives and methods, national secondary school curricula in SADC Member States were examined, which included the seven responsibilities listed below. The responsibilities are as follows: (a) Collecting curriculum and syllabus documents from Member States and combining them with those previously collected by UNESCO; (b) Examining curricula for content relevant to GCED concerns, competencies, and values; (c) Identifying specific priority topics and concepts connected to GCED, as well as proposed GCED teaching methodologies and resources; (d) Looking for curriculum parameters that include SALH, such as disciplines, number of hours, instructional methods, and themes addressed; (e) Liaison with and interviews with key informants from Ministries of Education (at least two each SADC Member State) to collect additional data; (f) Identifying advanced GCED and/or SALH teaching countries and studying their best practices; and (g) Sharing the review's findings and conclusions with the regional working group and the SADC ministerial meeting.
For the purposes of this study, data collection consisted of the following four techniques: i) desk research; ii) interviews; iii) document analysis; and iv) semi-structured questionnaires. Interviews were personal and unstructured. The main aim of conducting interviews was to verify information gathered through desk research regarding GCED and SALH education in secondary schools in the thirteen selected SADC countries. Information was collected from online materials (i.e. syllabi, curricula and legislation) as well as from interviews conducted with ministry officials and/or teachers/educators in SADC. Key issues focused on included inter alia; (a) Reviewing the legal framework on education for each country; (b) Reviewing curriculum and course outlines/syllabus for each country; and (c) Determining the themes and keywords used in the curricula. For example, emphasis was placed on the history of liberation struggle, civil, heritage, and human rights education.
Content analysis was used to analyze the data gathered from the desk review and personal interviews. According to Moore and McCabe (2005), this is a research technique in which data gathered is categorized in themes and sub-themes, in order to be comparable. The main advantage of content analysis was that it helped in reducing and simplifying data collected in the desk review and interviews, at the same time producing results measurable using qualitative research techniques. Further, content analysis afforded researchers the ability to structure the qualitative data collected in a way that satisfied the accomplishment of the study's research objectives.

The terms GCED and SALH defined
According to UNESCO (2014b), global citizenship is "a sense of belonging to a community and a common humanity," as well as the interdependence and connection between local, national, and global dimensions that develop in response to today's challenges, which transcend national boundaries and have an impact on everyone (UNESCO, 2017a). Therefore, according to UNESCO (2014b), GCED is primarily about: . . . essential functions of education related to the formation of citizenship in relation with globalisation. It is a concern with the relevance of knowledge, skills, and values for the participation of citizens in, and their contribution to, dimensions of societal development which are linked at local and global levels. It is directly related to the civic, social and political socialization function of education, and ultimately to the contribution of education with the challenges of today's increasingly interconnected and interdependent world.
The goal of GCED is to enable students of all ages to actively contribute to the creation of societies that are more peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, and secure on a local and global level. It is based on the three learning domains of cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioural learning, which relate to people's conduct, performance, engagement with others, and practical knowledge. Cognitive learning is concerned with the knowledge and thinking skills necessary to comprehend the world and its complexities. Socio-emotional learning also includes the values, attitudes, and social skills that enable learners to develop affectively, psychosocially, and physically.
While there is a definition of GCED, there is no explicit definition of SALH. However, it is understandable from the standpoint that colonialism in Africa was strongly challenged after World War II, when African countries banded together to oppose injustice and intolerance (UNESCO, 2018 see also UNESCO, 2020a). 9 They achieved independence and liberty, including by means of violent struggle as well as peaceful negotiation. This led to the emergence of SALH through the operations of the Frontline States, a coalition formed in 1970 to coordinate the liberation movements of its members, namely Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Eswatini (then Swaziland), Tanzania, Zambia and, from 1980, Zimbabwe. For the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa, the formation of the Frontline States was a welcome development, and the coalition succeeded in forcing South Africa's government to open up a dialogue with liberation leaders. After the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) was established in the 1980s to advance freedom in the region, this pressure grew. When European nations and the United States of America stepped up their support for the SADCC, apartheid South Africa further distanced itself from the rest of the world. When South Africa had its first non-racial democratic elections in 1994, these efforts finally paid off. The dissemination of this knowledge has a direct bearing on the core principles of SALH, among which Ubuntu is the most significant. Table 3 below presents the key topic areas relating to SALH and GCED that the authors of this article expected would feature directly or indirectly in the curriculum and syllabus documents that they collected from SADC countries.
In 2015, UNESCO identified nine major thematic areas for GCED, in general. Table 3 below provides these nine thematic areas. From the desk review, it was anticipated that secondary schools' curricula in Southern African countries should have incorporated these elements.

The link between SALH and GCED
With an emphasis on political, economic, social, and cultural interdependence as well as interconnectedness at local, national, and international levels, learners in both GCED and SALH education are encouraged to develop a sense of belonging to a great community and a shared humanity.
In the framework of this review, a critical analysis of GCED principles revealed that they are similar to those found in African philosophy, such as Ubuntu, which similarly emphasizes community and humanity.
If SADC nations use GCED concepts in their curricula, they should think about starting with a SALH viewpoint so that students will comprehend their own history, where they are from, and why GCED principles are significant. Teachers must make sure that the GCED and SALH are not given in a way that favours values that are incompatible with the SADC. Instead, the ideas should be taught in conjunction with one another to promote tolerance between races and different cultures, fusing concepts like Ubuntu and human rights, and attending to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its call for facilitating equal, sustainable, and inclusive growth throughout the world.
A brief overview of the findings on GCED and SALH education for each country is presented in the next section, starting alphabetically with Angola.

Angola
Angola has made reasonable attempts to integrate GCED goals and principles in the country's education system. Due to the fact that compulsory general education 11 ends at Grade 9, before learners diversify their education through specific streams, a substantive amount of GCED is covered in the subjects such as History and Moral and Civic Education. 12 For example, Angolan learners opting for the social sciences stream after grade 9 (i.e. in grades 10, 11 and 12), will again cover aspects of GCED and SALH education in greater details in grades 10, 11 and 12. 13 The curriculum of these learners also has more time dedicated to History and other cognate subjects, such as Introduction to Sociology, and Introduction to Law. 14  . At this stage, these learners will only be exposed to GCED values and goals if they form part of their specialized subjects, such as biology and diseases for learners studying life sciences. 15 While Angola integrates African liberation history in general (in particular the resistance to colonial rule), it is not specific to SALH only. Learners study African history divided in regions (i.e. North, East, West, Central and Southern Africa, or according to colonizing powers).
In Grade 9, the Angola Curriculum (History Programme) covers three major themes, with the third theme covering SALH in detail. The themes are as follows; Theme 1 (Colonial Occupation of Africa); Theme 2 (Characterization of the World between the Two World Wars); and Theme 3 (the Independence Movements of Africa (and also Asia, as well as the Non-Aligned Movement)). The focus in Theme 3 is on Independence movements of Africa. In Studying the African movements, issues pertaining to the following are covered: (a) Nationalist Conscience of African Countries in general; (b) the Nationalist conscience of the Southern African countries in particular; and (c) The understanding of the effects of changes in world politics and the creation and disintegration of the Soviet Bloc (specifically the changes operated in Southern Africa emanating from the creation and disintegration of the Soviet bloc). In this part of the study the programme covers specifically, among others themes, Liberations of the Southern African Countries in general, Namibia, South Africa (in particular the creation and disintegration of Apartheid; the rise of the African National Congress, and the end of Apartheid), Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe and other Southern African themes.
Students following the Social Sciences stream, at Grade 12 cover again the SALH. At this stage, learners study Southern Africa liberation movements in greater details. The grade 12 Programme is divided in 6 themes, grouped in Trimesters: Trimester 1 cover Themes 1 and 2 (First World War and The World Between the Two Wars, respectively); Trimester 2, covers Themes 3 and 4 (Second World War and Decolonization of Africa, respectively); Trimester 3 covers Themes 5 and 6 (Cold War and disintegration of Soviet Bloc, and Major Problems of the Current World, respectively). The SALH is mostly covered in Theme 4, (with some parts also in Theme 5).
Theme 6 covers most of GCED topics such as HIV, pollution, international organizations (in general) (and specifically The Organisation for African Unity/African Union), globalization and regional conflicts as well as underdevelopment. The books used are all issued by the Angolan "National Institute of Investigation and Development of Education (INIDE) at Grade 9. At Grade 12 INIDE still issues the education books as specific to Social Sciences stream. All history books used refer to UNESCO History of Africa Volumes I to VIII (and specifically in Grade 12 SADC documents, among others).
The current approach adopted by Angola on SALH education is fairly extensive. The approach exposes all learners in the country, when still doing a general compulsory education, to a significant amount of GCED and SALH education, content. However, it reserves the learning of the detailed knowledge of SALH education to learners specializing in social science streams before they embark on university studies.

Democratic Republic of Congo
The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has a similar school programme system to Angola (although Angola has now moved one year of Second Cycle of Secondary education [Grade 9] to first cycle, now comprising 3 grades (grades 7, 8 and 9 as General education). DRC retains the 2 years (grades 7 and 8) of General Education in the first cycle and 4 years (grades 9,10,11 and 12) in the second cycle in which learners are channeled in specific streams (Humanité Scientific [Secondaire general]; and Enseignement technique et professional). In DRC (as is the case with Angola) History as a subject is comprehensively taught as it covers African History (reference in this regard is made to the North, West, East, Central and Southern African history). Like Angola, the DRC has programmes in Moral and Civic Education and one foreign language (English) and local languages. Gender equality and the discussion of diseases also appear in several other subjects such as history and geography and biology. 16 GCED content in the DRC is fairly comprehensive 17 as it is in Angola. The only difference in approach between Angola and DRC is that Angola covers most of the GCED much earlier in the education system compared to DRC. This is attributed to the fact that DRC has an extended History programme that runs up to grades 10, 11 and 12 for all streams. In the DRC Curriculum, most of the SALH and GECD principles are covered more specifically at Grade 12 (in the History programme) whilst many other themes are covered also in different subjects. In the Curriculum, Unit IV of the History Programme of Grade 12 specifically, covers the African World from 1945 to current days. The history programme in clauses 4.1 and 4.2 covers decolonization in 12 lessons, namely the causes of decolonization: Decolonization of English Africa; decolonization of Portuguese Africa and decolonization of Francophone Africa. When the programme covers the decolonization of English Africa, it emphasizes Southern Africa, the issues of Apartheid and related themes. The pedagogic orientation to the lecturer when covering these themes are as follows: The teacher shall indicate the principal factors of decolonization; he/she must describe in summary form the stages of decolonization and the major problems of post independent Africa such as 'coups d'états; acculturation of Africa, etc.
Again, in Grade 12 the programme prescribes in UNIT CB9, the major problems of current world: here the themes are grouped in Continents: For Africa, the major themes are Hunger, unemployment; malnourishment; rise and development of religious sects; HIV/AIDS, Demographic Problems, Violation of Human Rights, and absence of democracy. (For Europe major themes are disarmament; globalization, the Aging of the population, etc; For Asia, most demographic problem, among others; and for the Americas, major themes are Drug use and abuse, racism, and terrorism. Many other GCED aspects are covered earlier in the programs. Books used in History are issued by the MED, but do have authors' names: Lupamanyi and Lisongo, History, Grade 12 (6eme Secondaire), 2015 MEDIASPUL; and for earlier school years, Grades 5 and 6, also they cover some aspect of history, the Books are Lupamanyi and Lisongo, Apprenons L'Histoire de l'Afrique et Du Monde (Let us Learn the History of Africa and of The World), (2012) MEDIASPUL. As regards GCED aspects of local languages, the DRC is arguably more advanced than Angola (with Angola having recently introduced the learning of local languages in its curriculum).
DRC has a moderate content of liberation history of Africa in general (and the resistance to colonial rule). But the content in the DRC programmes is not specific to SALH alone. Learners do study the history of Africa divided in regions (North, East, West, Central and Southern Africa, or according to colonizing powers, as pointed out above). Prominent in all the DRC and Angola history curricula is the mention of each country's date of independence and the colonial power or oppressive regimes. Both DRC and Angolan curricula also cover the aftermath of African countries' independences, and subsequent events that arose after such independences the resultant causes and consequences of such events.

Eswatini
In Eswatini, The Eswatini National Curriculum Framework for General Education outlines learning areas that are spread throughout the five phases of the education system to accommodate an integrated approach to learning and emphasise the holistic nature of learning. Such a comprehensive nature of learning serves as reason why GCED is arguably a feature of the curriculum in Eswatini. Learner-centred methods of teaching and learning are emphasised in the curriculum framework to ensure learners achieve intended competences. 18 The Imbokodvo National Movement advocated that throughout the primary and secondary school education, " . . . civic education and history relating to Eswatini should be given emphasis and at higher levels of the education system, emphasis should be given to development studies relating to Eswatini." 19 However, there is need for the education authorities and teachers in Eswatini to try to ensure that they engage learners more actively in subjects such as civic education and development studies in Eswatini. Civic education is the study of the theoretical, political and practical aspects of citizenship, as well as its rights and duties. Development Studies is an interdisciplinary subject, which focuses on the development concepts, issues, and strategies. It is about the interaction of the economic, social, political systems and environmental, which affects development, including decision making, and action taking.
On a positive note, the current Eswatini education policies strongly feature Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). 20 Education for sustainable development in Eswatini requires that: . . . nations and their peoples learn their way out of the current social and environmental problems and learn to live sustainably. ESD aims to help people to develop the attitudes, skills and knowledge to make informed decisions for the benefit of themselves and others, now and in the future, and to act upon these decisions. The primary goal of ESD is to develop norms and values and change practices and lifestyles to ensure sustainable living. Thus, ESD is an essential link in the poverty reduction, health, and environment protection chain.
More still needs to be done by Eswatini in so far as citizenship education is concerned. Though it appears to exist in the form of formal education, it is seen in civic education as is the case with Lesotho, Namibia, Malawi and Zambia. Plausibly, Eswatini is one of the leading countries in SADC when it comes to the express integration ESD (evidence of ESD is limited in other countries in the SADC region with the exception of Namibia, United Republic of Tanzania and Zimbabwe).
With regards to aspects of GCED and SALH education the curriculum reviewed did not highlight the pedagogies and resources proposed but mostly the topics and learning outcomes. The same applies with evidence of formal and non-formal programmes containing detailed GCED and SALH education.

Lesotho
GCED principles are incorporated in the formal and informal spheres of education in Lesotho. Lesotho's curriculum and assessment policy seeks to ensure that learners: (1) acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that enhance permanent and functional literacy and numeracy for continuous effective learning and for application in various situations; (2) develop advanced entrepreneurial, technological and vocational skills for world of work and further studies; (3) acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes to interact appropriately with the environment and promote socio-economic development; (4) acquire religious knowledge, skills and attitudes to promote socially and morally acceptable behavior; (5) are able to apply scientific and technological knowledge and skills in developing new ideas to respond to socio-economic challenges; and (6) acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for effective participation in democratic processes and social activities. 21 For example, in dealing with environmental issues and creating a generation of environmentally conscious young people, issues of health (in particular HIV and AIDS) poverty eradication, democracy, human rights, gender and others, the Lesotho government has called for an interdisciplinary and integrated approach to curriculum design and teaching. 22 Integration will further be enhanced if communities are involved in the learning processes. 23 Thus project work should not be confined to schools but involve communities as well to enhance action competence among the learners. Integrated and learner-centred approaches to teaching and learning are used in the implementation of curriculum in schools. 24 Embedded within this is identification of behaviours associated with learning at different developmental stages of learners. The methods of teaching should thus enable development of skills and attitudes which equip learners, and hence society more generally to influence the rapid social and economic change. 25 Whilst the general assumptions of this study were that GCED education can take place through formal education (with special emphasis being placed on secondary schools in the SADC region) evidence from Lesotho points out that, civic education can take place through informal learning platforms such as public gatherings. Examples of this can be found in activities that take place in the chief's courtyard (khotla) and during voter education exercises conducted by the country's Independent Electoral Commission. 26 Aside from the notable evidence of efforts made to integrate selected aspects of GCED in the curriculum, there is little to no evidence of the integration of SALH education in Lesotho. More needs to be done in this regard.

Malawi
As is the case with Lesotho, the central focus of Malawi in so far as GCED is concerned is civic education. Civic education promotes the knowledge of the national constitution, the responsibilities of a good citizen in relation to party dictates and of the structural responsibilities of a good citizen in relation to party dictates and of the structural differences between local and central government. Civic education is provided through Civics, an ordinary subject in the national curriculum in Malawi. However, Civics as a subject is more focused on primary as opposed to secondary education.
The National Education Sector Plan (NESP) (2008-17) sets out national education goals and objectives for the decade. These are: expanded equitable access to education, improved quality and relevance of education and improved governance and management. These are in line with the Malawi Growth and Development Strategy II (MGDS II). MGDS II is the pillar for socio-economic and industrial growth for Malawi and the main thrust of the national plan for poverty reduction.
The Science and Technology policy sets out guiding principles, strategies, institutional and legal framework for effective interface with sectoral policies and the development and application of science and technology for poverty reduction.
Malawi's Vision 2020 sought to help the Government, the private sector and the people of Malawi to realise socio-economic development. Vision 2020 provided the framework for national development goals and the policies and strategies to achieve them. The outcomes of Malawi's Vision 2020 were articulated as follows: (1) a consensus between Government and the Civil Society, through a participatory National Long-Term Perspective Study process, regarding the long-term development direction of the country; (2) a successfully completed, nationally conducted and systematic study of Malawi's past, present and future options for social and human development; (3) a long-term framework for the government to prepare its short-and medium-term plans; a national participatory machinery for preparing and up-dating long-term perspective studies on development; (4) an integrated data base on development issues affecting Malawi; and (5) a civil society sensitized to the need for, and the process of strategic development management.
Malawi is set to launch the successor of Vision 2020 to be known as Vision 2063 which is in line with Africa's own Agenda 2063. What thus becomes evident is that like Lesotho, Malawi focuses on citizenship education that relates to the process of democratisation. There is not much emphasis that is placed on aspects of broader and international oriented GCED. There are also no detailed learner abilities associated with GCED.
As regards SALH education, there is no evidence of its integration in the curriculum. History, as a subject, is largely national and global oriented. It rarely, if at all touches on SALH. The Malawian history books do not discuss the SALH in greater details. The Malawian history books are more geared towards global historical events than Africa.

Mauritius
In Mauritius, GCED is integrated and addressed in topics of Social and Modern Studies Curriculum, which is compulsory at lower. It will be examined for the first time in April 2021 (the first cohort of Nine Years Continuous Basic Education reform). Most of GCED terminologies are integrated within the different units but these themes are not dealt in depth at the lower secondary level (Grades 7, 8 and 9) (See annexure 4 of this report for GCED terminologies).
The subject Social and Modern Studies (SMS) focuses on preparing learners to become active and responsible citizens and maintaining the democratic values of the country (i.e preparing effective citizens for the 21 st century). Learners need to understand how the present has come about and the need to cultivate an appreciation for the heritage of their country. The subject enables learners to develop a positive attitude and spirit of inquiry that will enhance their understanding of the world and empower them to think rationally, participate actively and become effective members of a democratic society. 27 It was noted during a 2017 UNESCO Conference that, countries made effort to move forward to integrate ESD-GCED for instance in policy, teacher training programmes and/or curricula. However more needed to be done to further integrate ESD-GCED as well as need for: 1) additional resources; 2) teachers capacity building; 3) school management support; 4) awareness of GCED and explaining its interlinkage with ESD to create synergies; 5) political will and public awareness; 6) and regional networking and cooperation. To that end, Mauritius has incorporated a number of GCED keywords into their curriculum in Social and Modern Studies Syllabus for grade 7, 8 and 9. However, most of the keywords are taught at elementary level and not in depth.
SALH education is not incorporated into Mauritius' curriculum. Mauritius, does not teach SALH but places significance on the national context in so far as liberation history is concerned. Learners are taught about; 1) European empires and colonies during the 20th century; and 2) factors which led to decolonization worldwide and the resultant impact of colonisation on Mauritius. Further, different phases leading to the liberation of Mauritius are also introduced such as various movements in achieving social, cultural and political independence. However, a regional approach to liberation history education has hardly been embraced in Mauritius with little to no evidence existing in this regard.

Mozambique
The vision of GCED in Mozambique is reflected in a number of education policy documents. The orientation towards GCED is expressly stated in various documents issued by the National Institute for the Development of Education (INDE) as well as Ministerial Decrees (Diplomas Ministeriais).
The Mozambican programme in History covers at primary level (until recently Grade 6), most of the basic history of Southern Africa. (Please note that until recently Grade 7 was part of Primary education). This has since changed as Grade 7 is now part of Secondary education. Council of Minister-"Strategy for the General Secondary School 2009-2015 of 24/11/2009" at item 61 already prescribed education of both pupils and teaching staff on HIV-AIDS issues; Item 46 of the same "Strategy Report" mandates the education on environmental issues.
Genocide, Terrorism, war, refugees, North-south relationships, developed-developing interconnections; interdependence are mostly covered in the history syllabus. Biodiversity, climate change and sustainable development are mostly covered in the syllabus of Biology and Geography. Diseases and human rights are covered in several subjects such as Portuguese languages, English languages, History, Biology, etc. Peace building and Human rights, gender equality, diversity, etc, are covered in the syllabus of Moral and Civic education, as well as history and geography.
Further, Mozambique has recently introduced a Primary and a Secondary School programmes similar to Angola and DRC  and Second Cycle of Secondary education ( . In the second cycle of Secondary education, learners are channeled into specific streams (either general or technical professional) or the "Pedagógico Secundário" (teacher training stream). In Mozambique the programme of History is comprehensive. It covers extensively the history of Africa; the history of the World in great detail, and the programmes include most of the GCED initiatives and guidelines.
The Mozambican programmes of History, starting from Grade 6 and up to Grade 9, have some content about SALH. In Grades 6 and 7, there is strong evidence of SALH education (covering content like decolonization, regional conflicts in SADC region, apartheid, etc). This is largely attributed to the fact that Mozambique's liberation is intertwined with the liberation of most countries in the SADC region.
In the grade 5-6 curriculum (primary education), in the subject Social Sciences, learners are introduced to the studying from the nearest to the furthest using the transversal principle. Applying the nearest to the furthest principle, learners are introduced to the study of Southern Africa in grade 5. They cover topics such as the formation of Ancient kingdoms and empires of Zimbabwe, Manykeni, Zulu and Maravi, amongst others. They also cover the role of the OAU/AU in the decolonization of Africa, regions of the African continent, the mercantile penetration and occupation of Africa by Europeans, the colonial systems in Africa, amongst other topics. In grade 8, learners study African decolonization and SADC in greater details. They also cover topics such as apartheid, regional conflict and regional movements. All books used are issued by the Mozambican National Institute for the Development of Education (INDE).
Thus, when learners at primary school are studying the liberation of Mozambique from colonial rule, several references are already made to neighbouring countries, especially Zimbabwe, Zambia and South Africa. SALH education appears more prominent in the subject of history, and to some extent in Moral and Civic education (especially when content such as non-discrimination; nonsegregation and human rights are discussed, SALH education becomes more prominent). It is important to observe that the Mozambican curriculum does not promote the studying of SALH in isolation from the rest of Africa. It is an integral part of African Liberation history, but with specific emphasis being placed on regional events.
In principle, Mozambique, addresses the SALH education as a subset of its programmes in History (and sometimes Economic/Human Geography) at Grades 8-9 (future Grades 7-9). In Mozambican Curricula, SALH is clearly addressed in the History Programme, both at Grade 6 and 9 where the topics on Colonialism, Cold War, Genocide, Apartheid, Ideologies of Racial Supremacy, forced labour, Slavery, are covered extensively. The SALH Liberation history also appears sporadically in other subjects such as English and Civic and Moral Education where learners study concepts and values of non-discrimination; non-segregation, respect for differences; multiculturalism, and solidarity.

Namibia
In Namibia, GCED concepts such as North-South relationships and interdependence are covered in subjects such as Economics, Development Studies and Geography. Issues such as climate change, biodiversity and sustainable development, global poverty, global inequality are covered in subjects such as Life Science, Geography, Economics and Development Studies. Gender equality, human rights and peace building are covered in Development Studies, Life Skills and Economics. Issues such as Diseases are covered under Life Sciences, Biology, Life Skills, Development Studies and Economics. Matters pertaining to Genocide, terrorism, war and refugees are covered in History.
The Namibian secondary school curriculum covers local, regional and global issues in relation to human rights. Subjects such as History, Geography, Development Studies, Life Skills and Economics all cater for local, regional and global human rights issues.
The following are important to note: (1) GCED and ESD are mainstreamed in different courses of the initial teacher education programmes (pre-primary, primary and secondary programmes. (2) All trainers are required to study the following courses: Contemporary Social Issues, Inclusive Education, Project based learning.
(3) Religious and Moral Education, and Environmental Education are for pre-primary student teachers (4) The following course is for those who are educated to teach in pre-primary and primary: Religious and Moral Education (5) Social Science and Professional and Community Development is offered to both primary and secondary student teachers.
The SALH education is well covered in History from grade 8 to 12. The history of independence movements in Angola, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe is substantively covered in history books from grade 11 to 12.

South Africa
South Africa's national curriculum is the culmination of efforts over a period of seventeen years to transform the curriculum bequeathed to the country by the apartheid system. From the start of democracy South Africa has built its curriculum on the values that inspired the country's 1996 Constitution (formerly Act 108 of 1996). 28 In 1997, South Africa introduced the first non-racial, Curriculum 2005 (C2005). C2005 was regarded as the uniting vision for transforming apartheid education in South Africa. 29 The Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS) and the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) were introduced in 2001 and 2003 respectively for the General Education Band and the Further Education and Training Band. 30 For improved implementation of the curriculum, the NCS was amended and the Curriculum Assessment and Policy Statement (CAPS) Grades R − 12 was developed. It serves the purpose of equipping learners, irrespective of their socio-economic background, race, gender, physical ability or intellectual ability, with the knowledge, skills and values necessary for self-fulfilment, and meaningful participation in society as citizens of a free country. South Africa's GCED conceptual framework incorporates the following concepts: a) Citizenship education 31 ; b) Human rights education; c) Democracy education 32 Young citizens should be educated and nurtured to become democratic citizens who are able to contribute to and enhance a democratic society; and d) Inclusive education. 33 It is generally viewed as a context within which ordinary schools include a diversity of learners, or as a system that ensures that learners with disabilities are accommodated within mainstream education.
In 1997, South Africa introduced outcomes-based education to overcome the curricula divisions of the past, but the experience of implementation prompted a review in 2000. From 2012 the two 2002 curricula, for Grades R-9 and Grades 10-12 respectively, were combined in a single document and are now known as the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12. The National Curriculum Statement for Grades R-12 builds on the previous curriculum but also updates it and aims to provide clearer specification of what is to be taught and learnt on a term-by-term basis.
As regards SALH education, it is included in the curriculum but mostly to the extent to which it directly relates to and affects South Africa. Otherwise it tends to focus on the European, Russian, Chinese and Middle East history in more detail than SALH. History is substantively taught in grade 10, 11 and 12. 34

Seychelles
In Seychelles, the developing of policies and guidelines on education by the Ministry of Education was significantly informed by international goals and strategies in education, including UNESCO's Education for All goals, the Millennium Development Goals, technical and vocational education and training goals and the Mauritius Strategy for the Further Implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States of 2005. As such, curriculum objectives regarding GCED in Seychelles include but are not limited to the following: 1) To enable learners to experience learning in engaging and challenging ways, to improve their learning outcomes, thus contributing to the development of successful lifelong learners who will become active and responsible citizens; 2) To indicate the values which are important to education and are to be encouraged and modelled; and 3) To provide guidance on parental and community involvement.
A list of attitudes developed through the study of Social Studies in Cycles 2 and 3. These comprise of aspirations to: 1) Develop appreciation for the different types of communities around the world; 2) Demonstrate desirable attitudes towards members of their community through sharing and caring; 3) Develop good habits of sharing and caring in their community; 4) Develop a sense of belonging to their community and nation; 5) Develop a sense of pride for the community/Nation; 6) Demonstrate responsibility as a young member of their community; 7) Appreciate the contribution of their ancestors to their community; 8) Develop and appreciate the contribution that workers make to their community; 9) Appreciate the role of a local community in the development of its residents; 10) Show appreciation for the diversity in the local culture and that of others in the world; 11) Develop an appreciation for different places of interest for community use; 12) Show respect for different changes which have taken places in their community; 13) Show respect for the symbol of one's country; and 14) Show respect and appreciation for important public places and property in their community There is no evidence of a SADC inclined SALH education. Emphasis is placed on national and global history related to colonisation.

United Republic of Tanzania
In the United Republic of Tanzania, issues of global citizenship are integrated in Civic curriculum. For example, in Form 1, learners learn about human rights. In Form 2, learners learn about democracy, in Form 3, Economic development, poverty and leadership; and in Form 4, globalization including Africa Agenda 2063, economic integration, SADC, ECOWAS and how to solve Africa's problems.
SALH education is integrated in the Form 4 syllabus under the topic of Nationalism. For example, learners are taught about freedom fighters and the role of Tanzania in assisting freedom fighters from other SADC countries to liberate their countries. Learners are also taken for a trip to visit Mazimbu, Morogoro where some of the freedom fighters' camps were located in order for them to appreciate the role of Tanzania in supporting African countries' liberation struggle.
Learners are also encouraged to research on stories about countries assisted by the United Republic of Tanzania to attain their liberation. Further, learners also learn about different national anthems, and to identify any similarities in the colour and symbols on national flags. Learners have pointed out similarities in the National Anthem of Tanzania and South Africa.
Teachers use various books for teaching GCED and SALH. Learners participate in searching for information; do presentations in class; debate, and write essays on different topics on GCED. The importance of teaching GCED and liberation history to learners in the United Republic of Tanzania cannot be understated as it enables learners to know the history of the continent and appreciate same. An example of the topics taught includes the history of Herero and Nama genocide in Namibia.
Despite the above, the infrastructures that were used by the freedom fighters during the Liberation struggle are still used to serve the education purposes. An example of these infrastructures includes; Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College (SOMOFCO) at Mazimbu which offered quality primary and secondary education for ANC. It is currently used as Solomon Mahlangu campus of the Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro; Samora Machel Secondary School in Mbeya, Kaole Secondary School and Vocational Training Center in Bagamoyo, Likuyu Sekamanganga Primary school and Masonya Girls Secondary school just to mention a few. The aim of using the same infrastructure to serve the education purposes is to ensure the sustainable use of liberation heritage and inform the current generation on the history of Liberation struggle as part of GCED and SALH education in Tanzania.
It is therefore evident a significant number of GCED keywords have been integrated in Civics, History, and Geography subjects. In addition, the legal framework and different policies supports the implementation of GCED in Secondary Schools. There seems to be a political commitment to incorporate global citizenship education and life skills in the new revised curriculum. 35 In addition, the promotion and use of foreign languages such as Arabic, Chinese, English and French with the aim to enable learners to integrate at regional and international level is a notable development in the United Republic of Tanzania.

Zambia
In Zambia, The National Education Policy (NEP) aims at promoting the full and well-rounded development of the physical, intellectual, social, affective, moral and spiritual qualities of all learners so that each can develop into a complete person for his or her own fulfilment and for the good of society. Although the NEP recognizes education as a right for every individual, the philosophical rationale for educational provision is informed by rational and moral autonomy, equality, fairness and liberty. Education in Zambia also serves as individual, social and economic wellbeing, to enhance the quality of life for all-guided by principles of liberalization, decentralization, equality, equity, partnership and accountability. Science a course based on the UNESCO Scheme was adapted where Science was required to be taught with experiments.
Teacher Education Programmes focus on producing a teacher with high levels of competences in: a) Material that is to be taught; b) Skills in different teaching methodologies; c) Understanding educational foundations; d) Creativity, constructiveness and innovation (Skill acquired); and e) Providing competent leadership. Beyond the above stated, there is not much available evidence from Zambia detailing the integration of GCED and SALH education in the curriculum in Zambia. The levels for such integration could also not be ascertained owing to the scarcity of information.

Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, GCED can be inferred from the definition in the Zimbabwe Curriculum Framework. It provides as follows: Educational philosophy expresses societal ideals and practices and it clarifies thinking about the curriculum. It guides the preparation of learners for appropriate roles in society. Zimbabwean beliefs and values underpinning the curriculum include: sovereignty, inter-dependence, mutual support, respect, discipline, and readiness to help others. Further moral uprightness and pride in Zimbabwean identity and heritage permeate the curriculum. Zimbabwean rootedness in the foregoing beliefs and values reflects pan-Africanist philosophy even in the face of globalisation. Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu epitomises universal human inter-dependence, solidarity, humanness and sense of community common in African societies. 36 The post-independence phenomenal expansion of education aimed at improving educational access for the majority of Zimbabweans. 37 The expansion has few parallels in the history of educational provision the world over. However, this has not been followed by regular and timely curriculum reviews as had been the overt purpose of the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) since the early 1980s as is the conventional practice around the world. The first ever post-1980 Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training (CIET, 1999) at the turn of the century laid the foundation for institutionalising the practice of regular curricular review to guide educational provision. The following are the highlights and recommendations from the review findings (The findings have a significant GCED influence): 1) Zimbabweans expressed the view that education should lead to the production of active and empowered school graduates imbued with Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu with capacity to participate in socio-economic transformation in line with the ZIMASSET economic blueprint and the nation's quest for self-reliance; 2) The mission of the Zimbabwean Education system is to facilitate the equitable provision of quality, transformative, practical, inclusive and relevant Infant, Junior and Secondary Education; 3) There is need for a transformative education system predicated on a shift from a content-based and examination driven curriculum to a competency and skills-based curriculum and grounded on both continuous school-based assessment and public examinations; 4) Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu, an Afro-centric perspective of life and work, customised to the Zimbabwean environment, should be the leading philosophy that underpins the Zimbabwean curriculum. Further, was recommended that a valuesoriented system where learning areas that instil national values such as self-reliance, entrepreneurship, responsible citizenship, critical global awareness, environmental stewardship, inclusiveness, multi-culturalism and tolerance, among others, be adopted; 5) The new curriculum should be guided, among others, by the following values: respect, creativity, inclusivity, gender sensitivity, fairness and equity, being responsible and valuing orderliness and cleanliness; 6) The principles guiding the curriculum should include: life-skills orientation and focus on competences, future looking, rights-based orientation, equity, relevance to all of: individual, local, national and global contexts; and 7) The curriculum has to ground the learner in his or her history and culture, as a Zimbabwean, and mould an upright character equipped with skills relevant to the 21st Century knowledge society. Learning areas or subjects for study have to mainstream heritage and Unhu/ Ubuntu/Vumunhu education concepts for cultural literacy and the aforementioned societal values. In addition, competence or skill-based learning should be embedded in the learning areas with emphasis on: innovativeness and creativity, problem solving, entrepreneurship, social skills, ICT literacy and financial literacy among other skills.
The Curriculum Framework in Zimbabwe is also informed by international conventions and agreements to which Zimbabwe is a signatory. Among them are the following: • The SADC Protocol on Education and Training; • Regional strategy roadmap for industrialisation and value addition; • The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights; • The Convention on Rights of the Child; • African Union (AU) and SADC Regional Conventions on Human and Children's Rights; • AU Agenda 2063 (2015); and • UN related initiatives to increase access, quality and relevance such as: the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD 2005-14), Education for All (EFA) Dakar Framework (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014) and the post 2015 Sustainable Development Goals.
Embracing the provisions of these conventions and agreements helps in benchmarking local curriculum processes against international best practices. Heritage, 38 history, culture and traditions make Zimbabweans unique in their own country, in the region and in African and global contexts. Learners will be supported in developing and promoting their ethnic identity and stressing the linkages between local cultures and national identity. Inter-cultural understanding and tolerance will be promoted through learning about each other's arts and crafts, music and dances, poems, rituals, cuisine and apparel rooted in Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS). 39 The Zimbabwe History curriculum places emphasis on African and European History. The curriculum in Zimbabwe covers SALH education to a notable extent. The history of South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, and Malawi is studied in fair detail. Zimbabwe, like Namibia, and Tanzania has integrated GCED and SALH education fairly well in their curricula. GCED and SALH education are thus taught in Form 1 to Form 4 in subjects such as History, Geography, and Heritage Studies amongst others. Specific reference is made to the 2015-2022 History syllabus for Forms 1-4. The syllabus provides learners with the means by which they will develop a historical view of Zimbabwe, Africa and the wider world. The topics covered in clued the following: 1) conceptualization of history; 2) origins of humankind; 3) ancient civilization of Africa: Egypt; 4) development of Zimbabwean societies; 5) slavery and trade; 6) early European contacts with Zimbabwe; 7) colonization; 8) colonial administration in Rhodesia; 9) Nationalism; 10) the armed struggle; 11) postindependence developments in Zimbabwe; 12) world wars; 13) regional and international cooperation; 14) socialism and communism; 15) The Constitution of Zimbabwe, democracy and human rights.
In Form 2, learners specifically study regional and international co-operation as reflected in Topic 6 of the Form 1-4 history syllabus. Under topic 6, there are three sub-topics which are: 1) Frontline States (FLS) 40 ; 2) SADC 41 ; and 3) OAU/AU. 42 What is significant to note is that FLS referred to a coalition of African countries from the 1960s to the early 1990s that were committed to ending apartheid and white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia. The FLS included Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The same countries form part of SADC hence the teaching of regional and international co-operation covers SALH to a greater extent.

Findings of the Desk Review
This section begins by describing the reviewers' main observations in a general way, and then moves on to a more in-depth look at the findings, an evaluation of the opportunities and challenges highlighted by the review, and a comparative analysis focusing on two countries in particular. This section builds on from the country specific discussion in part 6 of this article. The overview of GCED and SALH presented in Table 3 below reflects the main findings emanating from the desk review and as outlined in part 6 of this article.
The review of the curricula, education policies, legislation, and programmes in the 13 participating countries revealed six key observations that may be useful to SADC policy-makers and UNESCO, which are as follows.
(i) Carrier subjects for GCED and SALH include civic education, social studies, history, geography, government and education for citizenship, and heritage studies. Countries are operating in isolation in so far as the integration of GCED and SALH is concerned.
(ii) The teaching of SALH in most countries mainly focuses on national history, as well as Western and Asian (Chinese and Japanese) history, rather than on SADC history. Angola, DRC, Tanzania and Zimbabwe are the only countries that focus on SADC history.
(iii) The concepts of GCED and SALH are complementary and not antagonistic. The reviewers' initial impression when formulating this work was that GCED and SALH might be distinct concepts that are treated separately in curricula. However, their observations revealed that GCED and SALH are interrelated concepts, with one forming part of the other. For example, the two concepts are largely taught in similar subjects such as history, civic education, geography, heritage studies and social studies.
(iv) GCED and SALH converge in their emphases on Ubuntu, human rights protection, regional integration, solidarity, and tolerance. GCED on its own emphasizes peaceful co-existence and non-violence.
(v) In Angola, DRC, Tanzania, South Africa and Zimbabwe, GCED and SALH are both covered in history lessons, in particular when they relate to human rights and Ubuntu.
(vi) There are no resource materials offering guidance on GCED and SALH education in the region. Each country uses its own textbooks or learning materials. Table 3 presents the findings of the review of where, how and at what level GCED and SALH are integrated into secondary school curricula and syllabi in the SADC. Table 4 below provides an outline of the level of incorporation of GCED and SALH in secondary schools in the SADC countries selected for this study. It provides an indication of the subjects in which GCED and SALH are taught and for which grades.

Overview of findings
GCED and SALH are not taught at all levels in SADC secondary schools. As Table 3 highlights, they are mainly taught as part of other subjects such as history, civic education, social studies, heritage studies and geography. However, not all students will study these subjects, so this suggests that GCED and SALH may need to be implemented in other disciplines such as science and economics.
The study further sought to identify countries with good practices of integrating GCED and SALH into their curriculum. The country with perhaps the best practices in this regard is the United Republic of Tanzania, whose curriculum treats these principles as being on a par with each other, and connects them to national, regional and global perspectives. However, the majority of the countries emphasized GCED over SALH. This pattern may indicate that for GCED and SALH to be embraced, they must resonate with the value systems of the particular society in question, and regional guidelines may be required in order to develop a plausible roadmap for integrating them into school curricula. Such a roadmap could be devised through a consultative process involving SADC Member States' education and cultural ministries, perhaps with engagement from those of Europe, Asia and America to draw best practices from a comparative perspective. This would support the creation of regional approaches whilst increasing stakeholders' understanding of GCED and SALH from a global as well as an African perspective.

Introducing GCED and SALH into curricula-Opportunities and challenges
In a globalized and interconnected world with increasing manifestations of both solidarity and intolerance, it is critical that education systems provide learners with values, attitudes and skills that are based on and instil respect for human rights, gender equality, and social justice. However, it is imperative to note that apart from the theory of GCED and SALH, learners should have actual experiences and opportunities to develop, test and build their own views, values and attitudes, and to learn how to act responsibly (UNESCO, 2017b).
GCED values appear to be integrated into the curricula of all of the participating countries, and there was also evidence of a nexus between GCED and SALH which can create a basis for a common application of the concepts through a regional framework. For example, Angola, the DRC, Tanzania and Zimbabwe incorporated GCED and SALH in their curricula. Regarding the subject areas in which GCED and SALH are taught, a consistent pattern was identified: History, civic education, geography and social studies were the main carrier subjects. This finding can perhaps inspire and guide curriculum developers, educators and relevant education ministries as they incorporate GCED and SALH. Moreover, a joint approach to GCED and SALH education may afford policy-makers an opportunity to broaden the base for teaching SALH from a narrow national context to wider regional and global contexts. This would also help to ensure that the global context informs the local and regional contexts and vice-versa.
In terms of challenges, the study revealed that whilst GCED values appear to be reasonably integrated into the secondary school curricula, much remains to be done with regard to integrating SALH. As evidenced by feedback from the interviewees, the majority of countries in the region offer SALH education in a very limited way or not at all. For those that do include it, the emphasis is often placed on country-specific liberation history and Western or Asian history, rather than SADC history. Only Angola, the DRC, Namibia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe teach SALH from a regional perspective. To address intolerance in the SADC, greater emphasis should be placed on SALH in the curriculum as a precursor to GCED.

Good practices drawn from a comparative analysis
The review revealed a general pattern of GCED being widely integrated in secondary school curricula. SALH was integrated in only some of the curricula, and a regional approach to it was observed in just five of the 13 countries. Two of these five are Tanzania and Zimbabwe, and their good practices are presented in this section.
Tanzania is a good example of a country that has managed to integrate both GCED and SALH education into the curriculum with notable success, and its approach may perhaps be employed as a best practice. SALH is included in the Form 4 (these are learners who are between the ages of 15-17 years of age, depending on how early they started school) history syllabus under the topic of nationalism. For example, learners are taught about the nation's role in assisting freedom fighters from other SADC countries, and they are taken on a field trip to Mazimbu, Morogoro, where some of the fighters' camps were located, which is now the site of Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College. This institution offers primary and secondary education for the African National Congress. 43 Learners are also encouraged to do research on the countries that Tanzania assisted to attain their liberation.
In addition, they discuss and compare SADC countries' national anthems and flags. For instance, some learners have pointed out similarities between the anthems of Tanzania and South Africa. They also give presentations in class, participate in debates and write essays on different topics related to GCED and SALH, such as the Herero and Nama genocide in Namibia in the early 1900s.
Apart from Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College, examples of educational institutions sited at SALH locations that are now used to demonstrate to learners the role that Tanzania played in supporting SADC countries' independence are: Samora Machel Secondary School in Mbeya; Kaole Secondary School and Vocational Training Centre in Bagamoyo; Likuyu Sekamanganga Primary School; and Masonya Girls' Secondary School. Using heritage sites to serve educational purposes contributes toward the sustainability of liberation history and informs the current generation about these struggles in a concrete and meaningful way.
Zimbabwe has also managed to capture GCED principles in its curriculum. The Heritage Studies syllabus features principles of Ubuntu, an Afro-centric perspective of life and work that is customized to the Zimbabwean environment. It also emphasizes national values such as self-reliance, entrepreneurship, responsible citizenship, critical global awareness, environmental stewardship, inclusiveness, gender sensitivity, fairness, equity, multi-culturalism and tolerance. The principles guiding the curriculum include a rights-based orientation and a concern with individual, local, national and global contexts.
The SALH is also encapsulated in the 2015-2022 History syllabus for Form 1-4. For instance, Topic 6 of the Form 2 syllabus is specifically about regional and international cooperation. Under this topic, emphasis is placed on the collapse of apartheid and the advent of democracy in South Africa, and its regional support by the Frontline States.

Recommendations
GCED and SALH are complementary principles that could potentially play a central role in fostering responsible citizenship values in the region. This section offers 13 specific recommendations to help educators and policy-makers in the SADC work toward integrating GCED and SALH values into their secondary school curricula.
(a) UNESCO and the SADC Secretariat should organize a regional workshop for educational institutions in the region, to develop guidelines for GCED and SALH instructional materials.
(b) UNESCO should conduct training of trainers in the SADC to empower educators with the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and dispositions necessary to integrate GCED and SALH activities and assessment in the classroom.
(c) GCED and SALH education should also be taught at universities and other teacher training institutions in the SADC (In Namibia, GCED will be taught at university level for the first time in 2023).
(d) UNESCO should identify and liaise with regional organizations that can provide supporting information and resources for GCED and SALH teaching, such as the Southern Africa Research and Documentation Centre in Zimbabwe; and the Human Rights and Documentation Centre at the University of Namibia.
(e) Useful materials for integrating GCED and SALH into the curriculum include documents from the African Liberation Heritage (ALH) Project and the summary of files from the liberation committee at the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which contains collective memories from the SADC.
(f) The SADC regional working group for curriculum review can make consultations with Tanzania's Mwalimu Nyerere Foundation and the ALH Project, which is based in the Tanzanian city of Dar es Salaam, in order to get resources on the history of liberation, including oral testimonies from the people who participated in and/or witnessed the struggle.
(g) The pre-colonial nationalist movement should be part of the content of GCED and SALH education to enable learners to understand the role played by Africa's traditional and local leaders (both men and women) in the fight against oppression and segregation.
(h) There should be exchange and outreach programmes for students in the region through study tours at the liberation heritage sites that were used by freedom fighters and their leaders.
(i) To realize the 2030 Agenda, there is a need to develop common GCED and SALH learning outcomes pertinent to the region and work collaboratively towards achieving them.
(j) Topics covered in SADC curricula should include the sustainable development of the regional economy, the protection of regional biodiversity and the marine ecosystem, and ethnic and racial tolerance, especially towards migrants. 44 (k) The appreciation of SADC cultural heritage should be promoted so that learners can develop the values of respect, tolerance, non-violence, and inclusion, and gain awareness of the need for environmental protection and sustainable development. SADC countries have focused on nationalistic approaches without fully acknowledging and celebrating the fact that they contributed to each other's independence. A case in point is the role that the Frontline States played in realizing independence in the region. However, regardless of this collective effort, there are considerable levels of intolerance toward migrants which suggests a lack of understanding as to how liberation in the region came about. The Ubuntu spirit is unlikely to be actualized if countries pursue narrow nationalistic values and/or aspirations.
(l) There is a need to promote portfolio-based assessment methods. The current assessment methods are primarily formative and summative. The skills, attitudes and dispositions being developed in GCED and SALH might be better evaluated through project-based and problem-based learning, and practical assessments that include the presentation of portfolios and conducting of case studies on GCED and SALH values. This argument is premised on the view that education can be an instrument for social change (Basha, 2017), so the assessment must not just focus on theory but also practice. Most cases of intolerance, racism, and xenophobia are observed in practice, not in theory.
(m) Due to the interconnectedness of GCED and SALH principles, it is proposed that the concepts should be integrated in the curricula and crafted into concise learning outcomes which must be uniformly realized in the region. In so doing, GCED and SALH should be staggered so that they cover local, regional and global perspectives. Educators should broaden the base and talk about Ubuntu from a global perspective, for example with reference to the transatlantic slave trade.

Conclusion
The desk review has provided evidence to the effect that all 13 countries reviewed have in one way or the other integrated GCED in their syllabi and curricula. GCED is mainly taught at the secondary school level in subjects such as Social Studies, Heritage Studies, History and Geography. Angola, DRC, Namibia, Tanzania, South Africa, and Zimbabwe are among the countries that have incorporated GCED into their curricula (i.e. in theory but without necessarily translating to the practical reflection of GCED and SALH ideals in people's daily lives in the region). To tackle intolerance, anti-foreigner sentiments and/or xenophobic tendencies, the values of GCED and SALH must be reflected in the daily lives of SADC citizens and must not be relegated to theoretical conjecture in classrooms. Teacher training programmes should ensure that there is a correlation between theory and practice in GCED and SALH education.
The review also indicated that, while GCED values appear to be fairly integrated into SADC curriculum, SALH is still mostly absent and in the instances that it is taught, it rarely focuses on regional liberation or the links between different countries' liberation and post-independence efforts. Only Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe have tangible evidence of SALH in their curricula. It is strongly suggested that a future study that includes all 16 SADC nations be performed to analyse the situation in the three countries not covered here, as well as any gains made in GCED and SALH education by the 13 countries featured in this evaluation. Tanzania, for example, was in the process of changing its curriculum at the time of the evaluation. Furthermore, because it was not possible to interview education officials from every nation, UNESCO and the SADC Secretariat assisted in further attempts to validate the material gathered. The major recommendation of this review is that the SADC adopts guidelines for GCED and SALH in order to create a unified strategy to incorporating these concepts into curriculum and motivate the region to adopt similar aims and values. A roadmap was then adopted in 2021 to meet this essential suggestion (UNESCO, 2021b). Curriculum andAssessment Policy, 2009, pp. 18-19. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid. 25. Assessment Strategies-Lesotho Curriculum andAssessment Policy, 2009, pp. 19-20. The assessment strategies include the following: a) formative assessment; b) Monitoring of educational progress (i) National educational assessment will be used to monitor the curriculum by checking attainment of defined minimum competencies at different levels of education as outlined by curriculum aims in pages 8 and 9 of this document. These will be conducted at the end of grades 4, 7 and 9 (form B). (ii)At grade 4 national assessments will be in the form of surveys and analysis will not necessarily cover all learners. (iii) At grade 7, national assessment will be used for two purposes: to check attainment of competencies for individual learners in individual learning areas and their level of readiness to proceed to grade 8 (Form A), and to monitor the progress of the education system. Consequently, statements of success indicating attainments of candidates in key areas will be available at the end of grade 7. These together with school reports will provide evidence of candidate's performance when a learner is required for transfer from one school to the other. (iv) At grade 9 (Form B) assessment will be in the form of a national survey focusing on broad educational objectives); c) Summative (At the end of grade 10 (Junior Certificate) and grade 12 (Senior Secondary) levels respectively, assessment will be in the form of examinations that are used for selection of learners to higher education levels. Performance will be checked at all learning areas per learner and all learners will be assessed).