Japanese surveillance in colonial Korea: Analysis of Japanese language textbooks for Korean students during the colonial era

Abstract This paper explores how Japan employed language education to justify Japanese imperial surveillance practices by examining the depiction of policemen and military police officers in Japanese language textbooks used by Korean primary students during the colonial period under Japanese rule. The analysis of the Japanese language textbooks used during this period uncovered the colonial educational goals and ideologies presented to Korean students, the ideal colonial citizens desired by the ruling system, and colonial aims furthered. This study investigates the ideologies presented in the textbooks using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Visual Image Analysis (VIA) by analyzing eight textbooks that were used in Japan and Korea. Both images and texts relating to Japanese government officials in the textbooks for Koreans from the colonial era are analyzed. The study reveals that the textbooks positioned Korean students to accept and integrate Japanese ideologies and attempted to indoctrinate Koreans into believing that the Japanese government officials were kind and cooperative, while also maximizing their authority over the colonized in their portrayal. The portrayal of government officials in the textbooks further reinforced this by showing the colonized having to display good behavior to authority figures, while not conveying any negative images of the government officials.

background and experience enhance her scholarly perspective.Dong Bae Lee, a senior lecturer in Korean language department at the University of Queensland, has published a monograph in a prestigious international publisher, 35 journal articles and book chapters and also one coauthored book.He has been trained in applied linguistics in MA, critical curriculum study in PhD and has conducted research in critical analysis of language textbooks and curriculum.Recently he has expended his research towards environmental issues in school curriculum.

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
This research examines into the subtle influence of language education in shaping perceptions and ideologies.By examining Japanese language textbooks used by Korean primary students during the period of Japanese colonial rule, the study reveals the methods Japan sought to legitimize its imperial surveillance and authority.These textbooks portrayed Japanese government officials, particularly policemen and military police, as cooperative and kind, encouraging Korean students to embrace Japanese ideologies.Such historical investigations are essential because they reveal how cultural influences can be maintained through seemingly harmless resources like educational materials.Acknowledging these methods is vital for contemporary societies to critically evaluate educational content and ensure a more equitable and unbiased representation of history and power relations.

Introduction
Throughout its colonial rule of Korea from 1910 to 1945, the Japanese empire implemented a unique colonial policy in Korea, unlike the colonial policies of the Western powers.British colonial rule was socially and economically "indirect rule", whereas French colonial rule was "direct rule" in principle (Bleich, 2005, p. 171).In other words, Britain provided higher education to the indigenous peoples in order to fill the administrative needs of the colonies and implemented a largely bystander policy, whereas France employed French people as administrators of the colonies.Japan's colonial policy toward Korea adopted the principle of direct rule by imitation of the French version, but the French preserved the indigenous people whereas Japan did not.Unlike France, Japan carried out a policy of annihilation of the Korean people under the name of an assimilation policy (Dudden, 2005).That is, Japanese imperialism attempted to annihilate the Korean people while maximizing social and economic exploitation by taking over Korean land and resources.This point was fundamentally different from the policy of Western colonial powers.
The Japanese government regarded Koreans as objects of surveillance under colonial rule, and to rule directly, the Japanese government officials (such as the military police) suppressed and controlled them.The Japanese government used political and military coercion to achieve control over the Koreans.Under the brutally oppressive Japanese military occupation, freedom of speech and publication were severely limited (Hall, 2020).Japan emphasised its dominance using colonial political powers and these controls were enacted through an augmented Japanese government police force and changes in education (Kim Han-jong, 2009).This involved systematic attempts to rationalise colonial rule by demonstrating the police force of the Japanese government through the school curriculum.The school curriculum was developed to encourage the acceptance of the subjugated role of the colonised citizens and highlighted the colonial policy of subjugating the Koreans, who were forced to be submissive, faithful, and loyal to the Japanese Emperor.The Japanese government used education as a means of gaining hegemony over Korean citizens and governing them.School curricula were also used to suggest that such submissive and conforming citizens were ideal colonised citizens.
Textbooks are means for realising educational goals, and their contents vary according to the educational aims of a country or era (Lee Hye-seung & Yu Jeong-ae, 2016).Thus, study of the textbooks published by the Japanese government during the Japanese colonial period is useful, as these textbooks clearly reveal the ideology and purpose of Japanese rule (So-ryun, 2015, p. 106).The textbooks published by the Japanese government presented a strong embedded Japanese ruling ideology, which the Japanese government intentionally aimed for and pursued.As the Japanese colonial policy was applied to the curriculum, that curriculum was changed, and changes were made to the content of the textbooks.For example, only textbooks for Korean students contained content related to Japanese nationalism along and introduced war-related games to students during the war.
Unlike neo-colonialism, 1 colonialism uses coercive military and police powers to control the colony.Japan used the police forces to control and rule the colonised citizens (Dudden, 2005).The image of the police force can be interpreted as a symbol for the fearful Japanese government's power and authority as well as "symbols of the new era of humiliation and militarism" (Nomura, 2018, p.115).For example, in pictures depicting the Japanese colonial period, we can often see a police officer wearing a uniform with a long sword suppressing and restraining Korean citizens and students.The Korean citizens had to follow the guidelines set by the colonizers, or else they risked having their jobs or property confiscated, or even imprisonment (Matos & Caprio, 2015).The colonized were also forced to obey the Japanese law, such as saving money for the Japanese government.Textbooks encouraged students to save while suggesting frugality.However, the textbooks for Japanese students did not include such images or texts relating to Japanese government officials nor saving money.
Despite the fact that government officials were used to control Korean citizens and students, and played a key role in the governing process of the 朝鮮總督府 2 (Joseonchongdogbu, the Japanese Governor-General of Korea), little research has focused on them.A previous study was conducted on the role and expansion process that the police officers had played in the colonization (Lee Sang-yeol, 2007), and another on the changes in the police system and police organization (Chang-Yun, 2013).Lee Sang-euy (2010) analyzed the characteristics and images of the Joseon 3 police through the role and changes of the police according to changes to Joseon society as well as analyzing short stories from a newspaper and book to discover what image of police had been presented to the Korean people.Lee Sang-euy (2010) found that violence committed against Koreans, either legally or illegally, by the public power of the policemen became commonplace and the image of the policemen was mostly negative among Koreans.However, the police image examined in that study contained limited outcomes as it looked only at a short story from a newspaper and a book; the study was not able to uncover the image of police officers in the education curriculum.
While there are various studies focusing on the education curriculum during the Japanese colonial period, it is challenging to find specific studies that address the Japanese government's image in the curriculum such as on the police officers.However, research on colonial education policies has provided sources for understanding of the Japanese government.
One example of such research by Park Je-hong (2011), provides a comprehensive analysis of the colonial education system in Korea, arguing that the education system was a tool for Japanese assimilation policy.The curriculum emphasized Japanese language and culture and downplayed Korean language and culture.The education system also aimed to erase the memory of Korea's history and culture while promoting the image of the Japanese government as a modernizing force.
Another relevant study by Kim Sun-jeon et al. (2012), found that the education system was used to make Korean students adopt Japanese culture and ideas.The curriculum was heavily influenced by the Japanese government and prioritized Japanese language and culture over Korean language and culture.Additionally, the curriculum depicted the Japanese government as helpful and superior while portraying Korean culture and history as inferior.
These previous studies examined the context of colonialism and education in Korea under Japanese rule.Although these studies did not directly focus on the image of Japanese government officials, they provided valuable insights into how Japanese colonial education was utilized to establish and maintain colonial authority.
As of yet, there have not been any studies using critical discourse analysis (CDA) to analyze the image of Japanese government officials in the textbooks that were used by Koreans during the colonial period.Some Korean scholars (Park Mi-kyung, 2011, Sun-jeon et al. 2012) have primarily focused their research on the Japanese language textbooks used by the Korean people, while others (Jae-cheol, 2009;Yoon-joo, 2011) have focused only on the colonial school curricula for the Korean people, with minimal comparison of the respective curricula of the colonizers and the colonized, and without analysis using CDA or VIA.The content of texts can possibly reveal the embedded perspective and the underlying ideological intention, thereby uncovering the existence of power relationships (Fairclough, 1993).Therefore, from text analysis using CDA, the dominant ideology presented in texts for Korean students during the Japanese colonial period and what control measures were used to govern colonial students can be explored.This is done by examining the roles of the government officials such as the police, and military police officers presented in the textbooks via the analysis of texts and visual images.Moreover, research on the image of Japanese government officials has been insufficient, with such research focused on school textbooks being even more rare.
Therefore, in this paper, the image of the Japanese government officials, who had a great influence on the overall thoughts and lives of Koreans, is investigated through textbooks that were published under the Japanese Governor-General of Korea.The investigation looks at what purpose was served by the image of the Japanese government officials in the textbooks for Korean students, and how Japan controlled Korean society and people.The role the Japanese government public officers, such as police officers, played and what methods they used is also examined.

Images of Japanese government officials and role
The Japanese occupation of Korea (1910Korea ( -1945) ) began with the annexation of the Korean Empire and involved cultural suppression, forced labour, and land confiscation (Schmid, 2002).During the Japanese colonial era , the police were used as a means to effectively control and oppress Koreans as members of colonial society (Cho Sung-taek, 2015, p. 79).Even today, when Koreans discuss the Japanese colonial period, they often talk about the brutality of the police.The image of a police officer with a long sword is imprinted in the memory of many Koreans as an object of fear which should be avoided.The police officers were involved in controlling the behaviour, language, thoughts, and daily lives of each Korean (Lee Sang-euy, 2010, p. 166), and they played an important role in exerting strong organisational power.The police were considered superior to any other institution within the Japanese Governor-General of Korea and were used to establish and maintain a colonial system while exercising strong power over the colonised (Kim Sun-jeon et al., 2012).
Japan appointed a Japanese army or naval commander to command the Japanese Government-General of Korea, effectively placing Korea under the control of the Japanese military, thereby executing an unauthorized rule by military method (Koshiro, 2013, Matsumura & Benson, 2014).Therefore, the Japanese Governor-General of Korea became the absolute power of Joseon's legislative, administrative, judicial, educational, and military powers, and they exercised coercive oppression to subdue Koreans.The policy of "unauthorized rule" in such an inhumane manner began through the military police system (Kwon Tae-eok, 2015, p. 327).The Korean people had no power to fight the Japanese rulers-they were subjected to forced rule and had to obey the various civil laws and regulations of the colonial rulers.The 1910s are also called the era of "the rule of the military police", 4 meaning that the Japanese soldiers became the police and they controlled the colonized.These Japanese police officers were feared by the Koreans (Kwon Tae-eok, 2015, p. 340).Military police officers performed not only security duties like policemen, but also had very comprehensive and diverse functions.For example, the military police helped with the work of administrative agencies, such as road construction, tax collection, business promotion, pest control, encouraging savings and fishing control (Lee Sang-yeol, 2007).In addition, by conducting a census, the military police also strengthened the system of surveillance over Korean citizens (Lee Sang-yeol, 2007, p.85).Unusually, military police officers did not have the role of apprehending soldiers but were soldiers to control the Koreans as would police officers.Therefore, the military police officers also served as judges in civil proceedings where there were no courts, and in areas without prosecutors, they also served as law enforcement agencies.In other words, these police officers were able to convict and judge Koreans while they were patrolling on the streets.Political activities and gatherings of Koreans were prohibited, and even if only three Koreans were gathered, the police officers punished them under the suspicion that they were planning an independence movement.In addition, a brutal and human-rights denying law was practiced against Koreans.This law was called "Joseon Taehyeongryeong 5 ", and it enabled police officers to judge and punish Korean people without any trial.At the time of the 1919 [Samil] Independence Movement, many Koreans who participated in the protests were sentenced under Joseon Taehyeongryeong, resulting in their disability or death by police order (Go Jong-hoon, 2016, p. 321).Therefore, the police officers played the role of controlling the colonized and they symbolized not only the colonial government but also "the terror of the Japanese rule" (Dong-Bae, 2000, p. 239).
The Japanese Governor-General of Korea formed a savings union, and low-wage workers who could not afford to accumulate money for their own needs were forced to save for Japan (Geon-Hong, 2001, p. 296-297).Japan set up a savings goal for them, and ruthlessly collected taxes to supplement Japanese funds during the war (Geon-Hong, 2001).Non-payment of heavy taxes could lead to government officials intervening and confiscating citizens' property or punishing them.Japan encouraged Korean students to save money, implying their duty to save and to pay taxes in the textbooks, especially during wartime periods 6 (e.g., the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937 -1945) and the Pacific War (1941 -1945)), even though these students were not of an age to pay taxes.Japan neglected to explain to the students what or for whom they should save money and omitted the negative aspects of why the colonized should obey Japanese law and support the Japanese war effort.

Methodology
Visual images and texts were chosen from the textbooks based on the research questions and analyzed according to the theories of visual image analysis (VIA) and critical discourse analysis (CDA).Texts and visual images containing information about Japanese government officials, including police officers, were selected.After this general analysis, a more in-depth CDA (Fairclough, 2016(Fairclough, , 2010) ) was conducted, and Kress andVan Leeuwen's (1996, 2006) methodology was applied to the visual images.

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) & Visual Image Analysis (VIA)
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a valuable technique that promotes a detailed investigation of relations of curriculum discourse to social discourse, power and ideology (Fairclough, 2013).It is a method that can explain social interactions as represented in texts that reveal ideological issues.Fairclough (1995) claimed that CDA is a method of discourse analytic research that can analyse social power relations, hierarchy and domination through analysis of the language of texts and also stated (2010) that CDA is an essential tool in textual analysis, as it deals with social problems that can reveal the implicit or ideological forms and semantics in language (p.9).Wodak and Meyer (2009) have also asserted that discourse analysis can show which power relations are displayed, and for whose ways of talking, thinking and acting (p.35).
In text analysis, CDA proves valuable for examining social interactions and the relationship between language and society.Fairclough (2016) claimed that CDA focuses not only on semiosis but also on the relations between semiotic and other social elements (p.87).According to Fairclough and Wodak (1997), CDA views discourse as a form of social practice (p.258), and therefore it can be stated that CDA can analyse social power relations, hierarchy, and domination through the analysis of the language of texts.Thus, CDA is an effective research method, particularly for language and texts that have the potential to contain various discourses, social and political issues, and embedded ideologies.
This study utilizes a range of analytical methods, including word choice, grammatical and textual analysis, to reveal the hidden Japanese ideologies conveyed to Korean students.Word choices within a text can carry messages related to both social identity and an individual's linguistic style.For instance, the use of informal vocabulary can be influenced by social factors such as cultural background, age group, or occupation.This is particularly pertinent when comparing how Korean people are represented in the textbooks in contrast to Japanese individuals.Furthermore, it is common to observe the frequent repetition of certain words or phrases with similar meanings.Fairclough (2013) highlighted the concept of "overwording," which signifies a preoccupation with specific aspects of reality and often serves as a focal point in ideological conflicts (p.96).This concept aligns with the study of grammar, where the concept of "modality" primarily pertains to the utilization of modal auxiliary verbs like "will," "may," "can," "must," "ought," "should," and so on.Fairclough (2003) claims that the choices made regarding modality in texts can be regarded as part of the process of shaping self-identity (p.166).The degree of commitment is conveyed using these verbs, simultaneously fulfilling interpersonal functions and expressing social identity between the writer and reader or the speaker and listener (Halliday, 2014).Therefore, both "overwording" and "modality" play a crucial role in our analysis of language and its ideological implications.
Social semiotics is at the centre of this study's process of analysing visual images, since "the genesis of signs lies in social actions" (Kress, 2010, p. 54).Hodge and Kress (1988) emphasised that social semiotics include the study of texts as well as the study of ideologies embedded in semiotic systems, therefore including visual images.Therefore, we define the method used for analysing the social meanings and values in the texts as coming primarily from Kress andVan Leeuwen's (1996, 2006) theoretical framework.Their visual image analysis (VIA) offers a valuable framework for the understanding of various techniques of image analysis.Kress andVan Leeuwen (1996, 2006) accepted the meaning of Halliday's (2004Halliday's ( , 2014) ) metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal and textual metafunctions.Kress andVan Leeuwen's (1996, 2006) visual image analysis method has the purpose of providing a better understanding of the content and a critical literacy reading of visual images to identify the underlying ideologies.Their "visual grammar" seeks to broaden the concept of CDA, which has been "confined to language, realized verbal text, or to verbal parts of texts which also use other semiotic modes to realized meaning" (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 14).According to Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006), the selection of visual image composition indicates important symbolic meanings of relative position.Therefore, the ideology reflected in the image can be found through the characterisation (gaze, background, and size), and composition.Visual analysis can explore not only power relationships and ideological messages, but also explain how and why visual elements are arranged and their further intentions (Dong-Bae, 2020).By employing both CDA and VIA, we were able to uncover and interpreted hidden ideological messages within the texts and images, offering insights into how Japanese colonial authorities sought to shape Korean students' perceptions of their government and culture.

Analysis
The primary purpose of this study was to examine how Japanese government officials were described and what was used to portray the government officials and their ideology in the textbooks published by the Japanese Governor-General of Korea.Accordingly, the starting point was to explore how the Japanese government officials, such as police officers, were explained in the textbooks.This paper also looked at the texts and visual images to perceive how the concept of saving money was imposed on the colonised through the textbooks.
Japanese was imposed as the national language, and Japanese textbooks were used in Korean schools throughout the Japanese colonial era.To examine the Japanese language curriculum and the textbooks issued under the Japanese education reforms (called "Joseon Education Ordinances 7 ") in Korea.There were four stages of Joseon Education Ordinances, and looking at the relevant changes and the significant differences in the textbooks may reveal Japan's changing aims and needs for colonial education.The Japanese language textbooks that were selected for analysis were used for grades 1 and 2 during the Japanese colonial era before the First Joseon Education Ordinance (1911)(1912)(1913)(1914)(1915)(1916)(1917)(1918)(1919) and following the [Samil] Independence Movement (in the Second Joseon Education Ordinance, 1919Ordinance, -1938)), as well as during the war (the Third & Fourth Joseon Education Ordinances, 1938-1945 8 ), in order to demonstrate the differences.

Government officials-police officers
The following four stories and two visual images were chosen from Hutsuugakkou Kokugotokuhon & Shotou Kokugotokuhon (Joseonchongdogbu, 1915(Joseonchongdogbu, , 1923(Joseonchongdogbu, , 1940) ) because they show the actions and images of a police officer.

Story 1:
The first story is from before the [Samil] Independence Movement and was chosen from Hutsuugakkou Kokugotokuhon 2 (Joseonchongdogbu, 1915) as it shows the actions and image of a police officer as perceived by two brothers.This story from Hutsuugakkou Kokugotokuhon 2-8 (Joseonchongdogbu, 1915, pp. 20-32) is titled "The police officer" (ジユンサ; Junsa 9 ).
The police officer is saying something to the person.
In the dialogue, the younger brother assumes that the police officer is scolding the other person, but the older brother corrects him, explaining that the police officer would not scold a person who has done nothing wrong.This exchange of ideas encourages readers to be obedient and law-abiding citizens.The didactic message conveyed through this dialogue is that the police will only reprimand people who have committed an offense and that readers should behave appropriately and avoid doing anything wrong.
Images often contain social hierarchies and differences (Schaefer, 2008).Social power relations are clearly depicted in Figure 1, as a man is standing with his head bowed (denoting low social status) whereas a police officer is pointing in a direction with his right arm.Bowing implies that the man is "showing obedience" to the police officer, and his gesture of looking down at the ground in front of the policeman also carries such connotations (Machin & Mayr, 2023, p. 72).Thus, the visual image of the policeman and the man can be interpreted in three ways: the police officer shows the way by lifting his arm in a direction and the man bows in thankfulness; the police officer has an aura of authority, and the man bows his head in apology for something bad; or the police officer is threatening the man, who bends his body to look down in order to show an obsequious gesture of fear.As mentioned above, Koreans were very afraid of the Japanese police officers because they were able to charge and convict Koreans who disrespected or argued with Japanese officers while they were patrolling on the streets.It was known that police officers immediately arrested such Koreans on the street and inflicted severe torture.
In Lines 3 to 6, the key words "anything wrong" and "give a lecture (or get mad)" are overemphasised by being repeated four times, which stresses to the colonised that bad behaviour can result in being given a lecture (being scolded).These repeated expressions demonstrate the allocation of social power and the hierarchical level of the policeman which is also related to ideological positions.The story encourages students to acknowledge police officers' authority, and to obey commands or instructions from policemen without question.
To give the students an impression of the kindness of the police officer, Line 4 states "giving directions to that person", ensuring that the policeman's gesture is interpreted as one of kindness.Line 4 suggests that police officers are nice and helpful to people who do not do something bad.However, Line 4 also carries a particular connotation-if you do something bad (such as not following colonial rule), police officers will not be kind.Therefore, the readers can have an idea of what attitude to have around police officers (Figure 1), as well as knowing not to do anything against the Japanese colonial rule.For example, "doing anything wrong" (Lines 4, 5, & 6) could be something that the Japanese government says is not permitted (e.g., tax evasion) or not within Japanese colonial policy (Kim So-ryun, 2015).By introducing the attitude to take this for granted, the ideology that those who do these wrong things in the conversation should be punished is naturally infused.By depicting the role of a police officer as one who scolds or punishes wrong behaviour, this story imposes a colonial ideology.
In this story, the Japanese police officer is depicted in a favourable manner.However, the reality was very different-the role of police officers was to suppress anti-colonial movements in order to maintain the Japanese colonial system and to use force to punish people taking anti-colonial actions.The main role of the police was to "solidify imperialism" (Cho Sung-taek, 2015, p. 79), not to serve one's community by helping people or to play a central role in the law enforcement system.The police force-controlled Koreans as colonised subjects, by coercive and rigid colonial rule, and seized Korean citizens if they showed political disobedience.

Story 2:
The second story is also from before the [Samil] Independence Movement "A military policeman (憲兵)", appearing on pages 85-86 under the title "The government office II" in Hutsuugakkou Kokugotokuhon 3-24 (Joseonchongdogbu, 1915, pp. 85-87).The following sentences are a translation of the text related to the government officials.The story portrays the role and location of military policeman and also explains how the colonised should behave to the Japanese government officials.
The text is didactic and informative, giving instructions and warnings about obeying government orders and respecting government officials.The story emphasizes the importance of being an ideal citizen who follows the rules and does not act disrespectfully towards those in authority.The text is focused on law enforcement and government, using vocabulary such as "憲兵" (military police), "巡査" (regular police), "人民" (people), "ワルモノ" (wrongdoers), "役所" (government office), and "役人" (government officials).It provides didactic instructions and warnings related to obeying government orders and respecting government officials.
Line 1 presents a simple declarative sentence that describes the military police as having the same duty as regular police officers to protect citizens.To highlight the significance of government officials, Line 2 explains that the bad people disappear because of the existence of military police officers and the police officers.Lines 3 and 4 stress that everybody must obey the orders of government officials and not be rude.The text contains vocabulary related to the government and law enforcement, such as "everyone" in Line 3, which emphasizes the authority of the government.Additionally, the use of conditional sentences and the strong modal verb "must" in Line 3 highlights the absolute power and authority of government officials.The text emphasizes the importance of showing respect to government officials using a compound sentence and the strong modal verb "must" in Line 4.
The story describes the role of police officers from a positive viewpoint, highlighting that the government officials exist for the benefit of the colonised, for example, stating that the government officials (like the military police officers or the police officers) make the bad people disappear (Line 2).However, the view put forward was far from the reality-to maintain the Japanese colonial system, the role of government officials was to suppress anti-colonial movements and to use force to punish people taking anti-colonial actions.Therefore, the Japanese government officials and their dominance over Koreans became a nightmare for the colonised (Yu Sang-hi, 2004, Yun Sang-won, 2014).Students desperately wanted to avoid Japanese police officers as well as other Japanese colonial government officials.

Junsa-san ga iroiro tazunemasu keredo mo, naku bakari de, nan domo kotaemasen.
A police officer asked various questions, but the child only cried and didn't answer any of them.
The text is a short narrative that depicts a market day in a town.It includes vocabulary related to weather, towns, people, and police officers, as well as verbs such as "コム" (to be crowded in Line 2), "ナク" (to cry in Line 3 & 5), and "タズネル" (to ask questions in Line 5 & 6).Despite the officer's attempts to ask questions and find information about the child's family, the child only cries and doesn't provide any answers.The story demonstrates the kindness of the police officer and the importance of helping those in need.It is didactic in nature, emphasizing the moral lesson of compassion and altruism towards those who may be lost and vulnerable.
The text starts with a simple declarative sentence describing the good weather on market day (Line 1) and then uses compound sentences to depict the crowded town (Line 2).The main purpose of the story is to highlight the kindness of the police officer, who is the only person among the busy crowd who takes the time to help the lost child find their parents.The story is didactic in nature, emphasizing the importance of being benevolent and helping others in need.This story was intended for children who were in first grade elementary school (8 years old).Line 4 describes a lost 5-year-old child, and the image accompanying it shows adults who observe the lost child from afar, contrasting with the police officer who goes to help the child by patting him on his head and asking him questions.The two figures in the background of Figure 2 also wear traditional Korean clothes and are placed far away from the child and the police officer.Their postures could be interpreted as them trying to look away from the lost child so as to not involve themselves.This is particularly reinforced by the figure further back who is completely facing away from the child and the police officer.It is implied that the adults are the colonised people, and the police officer represents the colonisers (the Japanese government), and by presenting the police officer as kind and responsible, this plants an ideology into the Korean students that Japan is a kind and responsible country that cares and looks after the children from the countries it colonised.
The depiction of the police officer in Figure 2 contains strong and powerful imagery when analysed.The police officer in the image is illustrated as much larger than the Korean figures positioned on left side of the top corner in the background, which indicates that the Japanese police officer is an important figure and has greater authority (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 202).This effectively places more emphasis on the Japanese police officer than the Koreans, as it indicates that the social status of the colonisers is higher than the colonised.Consequently, the lack of interaction between the Korean citizens and the Japanese police officer is accentuated.The idea that the police officer is "kind and generous" has been stressed though their description as a kind person who is caring, "the police officer picked the boy up" (Line 6), and as someone who was kind enough to help the child find his parents by asking people if they were the boy's parents.
The visual image and contents reveal that since the police officer treated the child with kindness, the child placed great trust in the policeman.In this case, the story attempted to indoctrinate the learners into thinking that the Japanese policemen were kind and cooperative, as well as hinting at how benign the Japanese colonial rule was.
The pro-Japan ideology presented in the Japanese language textbooks encouraged the colonised students to regard the Japanese empire favourably, and thus, the colonial ideology was repeatedly emphasised in the language textbooks in order to influence the formation of this ideology.

Story 4:
The fourth story is from wartime and was chosen from Shotou Kokugotokuhon 3-22 (Joseonchongdogbu, 1940, pp. 91-94).It also shows image of a policeman, highlighting the importance of greeting a police officer and to be good at speaking the Japanese language in this story, "The police officer" (ジユンササン; Junsasan).

ジユンササン ニ アイサツ ヲ ナサル ト、ジユンササン ハ、「チカゴロ、コノ 村 ノ 人タチ ハ、 ミンナ 国語 ヲ ツカウ ヨウ ニ ナリマシタ ネ。」ト、ニコニコ シ ナガラ オツシヤイマシタ。
Junsa-san ni aisatsu wo nasaru to, junsa-san wa, "Chikagoro, kono mura no hitotachi wa, minna kokugo wo tsukau you ni narimashita ne." to, nikoniko shinagara osshaimashita.They greeted the police officer, and the officer said, smiling, "Recently, everyone in this village has started to use Japanese." The text is classified as a short narrative or dialogue that describes a chance encounter between the narrator, a police officer, and other local characters.The story highlights the importance of polite behaviour and proper greetings in Japanese culture, as well as the role of police officers in small towns.The story's overall tone is friendly and polite, and it reflects the social norms and values of Japanese culture, such as showing respect to elders and authority figures.
The narrator refers to where the narrator met the police officer and how the police officer approaches the narrator first (Lines 1 & 2).The narrator also mentions how "I", Nobuyoshi and Kouzou (Lines 3 & 4) greeted the police officer and then highlights how the village leader and Kouzou's father also greeted the police officer (Line 8).The text also includes polite language, such as " ゴザイマス (Line 4) and "ナサル" (Line 9), which are used to show respect to the person being spoken to.The main aim of this story is to convey the importance of greetings, with all colonised citizens expected to greet quickly when they met police officers ( Lines 3,5 & 8).The police officer has the most power of any person in this story, and all people in the village greet the police officer.However, the police officer does not offer his own greetings to them, not even to the village leader.Instead, the police officer interrupts and asks people about the fishing and if they managed to catch any fish in the river (Line 1).By excluding the exchange of greetings between the police officer and the colonised, this story constructs the power relationship, much like how the Japanese government held greater power than Korean citizens.
In this story, specific expressions were used such as "quickly bowed to him" (Line 3), "greeted him hurriedly" (Line 5) and "corrected themselves right away" (Line 7) to amplify the good behaviour and to demonstrate the colonised characters showing obedience and submission to the more powerful coloniser.These repeated phrases emphasise the adult ideology of showing good behaviour and greeting manners to the police officer.The text suggests that Nobuyoshi and Kouzou greeted the police officer hurriedly, with full attention, and said the morning greeting when it was in the afternoon 11 (Lines 4,5 & 6).The police officer laughed and corrected the wrong expression from Nobuyoshi and Kouzou (Line 6).By using, in part, a conversational tone, this story displays the power relation of the people, representing those of a lower a status, who are situated to bow and show good behaviour to the police officer, who represents a higher authority-higher than both the village leader and Kouzou's father.Line 8 shows not only the police officer's authority being higher than the village leader and Kouzou's father, but also the students are suggesting respect for the police officer and the manners required to greet the police officer by showing the students that the village leader and the father approach and greet the police.The people ("I" (narrator), Nobuyoshi, Kouzou, the village leader and Kouzou's father) represent the colonised subjects whose ideal character is bowing, greeting, and showing good behaviour and manners towards the police officer, who is presented as a symbol of the Japanese colonial government.The police officer is pleased and praises them while smiling at the people who speak and use the Japanese language (Line 9).The story suggests that there is a clear hierarchical order in the greetings by showing the Koreans giving greetings and bowing to the police officers.Additionally, the story subtly addresses the issue of language and cultural assimilation when the police officer remarks on the recent shift towards the use of Japanese language by the villagers.This observation suggests a potential tension between preserving local culture and integrating with the broader Japan national culture, and it invites the reader to reflect on the complexities of cultural identity and change.

Story 5:
A section of the story, "Saving one penny", on pages 98-100 in Shotou Kokugotokuhon 3-23 (Joseonchongdogbu, 1940, pp. 94-102) extolled the habit of saving money.This story was chosen because it effectively demonstrates how Japan used education to instill specific values such as saving money in Korean students through analysis of this story.
7. ソウシテ、「ホウ、ソレ ハ カンシン ダ。」ト オツシヤイマシタ。 Soshite, "Hou, sore wa kanshin da." to osshaimashita.Then, [he] said, "Wow, that's so good of you." Watashi wa tataku no yo yamete, "Kinou, sensei ga, isshin no okane demo, muda ni shite wa naranai koto wo ohanashi shite kudasaimashita.I stopped tapping and said, "Yesterday, the teacher told [me] not to waste even one penny." The text portrays a casual conversation between members of a Korean family, centred around the themes of money and saving.It is written in a casual style and reflects the daily life of a Korean family.The characters are not explicitly described, but their relationships can be inferred from their conversations and actions.
The story "Saving money" placed strong emphasis on savings and showed a way to earn and save some money-by giving a massage to one's grandfather.The sentences are relatively simple, consisting of a subject and a verb, and the particles are used to indicate the relationship between words.The verb tense used in the text is mostly present.The text mentioned "a reward" (Line 2), "one penny" (Line 3), and "save" (Line 5), and these words provide a better understanding of the motivation of giving a massage to the grandfather.The visual image and text complement and support each other in the discussion of saving money and portray an effective ideological theme of the saving of money during the colonial era.By closely examining the text, it can be seen that there was great emphasis and focus on the topic of "Saving money", but the text did not mention the reason for saving.The text also avoided describing for whom the Korean students should save money, but it can be assumed that it is for the Japanese Empire.As mentioned earlier, Japan tried to collect necessary funds from its colonies to make up for the lack of funds during the war (Seth, 2016).Excessive taxation caused by this made the Korean people suffer from extreme poverty (Mun Young-joo, 2003).Therefore, it would be reasonable to assume that the purpose behind the story was not because Koreans were wasting money (Line 8), but that they had to save, even if they were experiencing severe poverty.
A girl gazes at her hands, giving her grandfather a massage while wearing her school uniform (Figure 3), implying that the action takes place either before or after school.The girl's action (of giving a massage) is highlighted in Figure 3.The girl is sitting on her knees, and this can have several connotations, for example, she is a small person who is represented as a young student who could be the same age as the readers.The grandfather is larger in size and has been placed in front of the girl.However, the grandfather's eyes do not make contact with the viewer, indicating that he is not the main focus, and instead informing the viewers that the grandfather is the receiver of the action (receiving a massage from a young girl).
In Korea, devotion and obedience to parents and grandparents were the basis of human conduct.Under the Japanese influence, the curriculum often emphasised absolute devotion and obedience to one's parents as a means of encouraging Korean students of the need for devotion and obedience to the Japanese Emperor.This was a basic principle of the morality being taught.Devotion and obedience to the Japanese Emperor seemed to have been an important moral standard in the colonial era and was indoctrinated in Korean students, who were forced to follow and accept colonial rules to create a motive for Koreans to participate in the war.

Finding and discussion
The Japanese language textbooks, published by the Japanese Governor-General of Korea, presented images of Japanese government officials that reflected changes in the thoughts and lifestyles of Koreans.The textbooks analyzed served Japanese colonial policy as shown in the four Joseon Education Ordinance.Additionally, to cultivate colonial subjects according to the aim/ purposes of each Joseon Education Ordinance, the textbooks for Korean students appropriately illustrated a powerful and very positive image of Japanese government officials including police officers.Such depictions illustrate how the Japanese colonizers controlled Korean society and its people.Through a detailed examination of these textbooks, the roles and dominant power of Japanese government officials, like police officers, are shown evidently, and the books also shows the changes according to the change of Joseon Education Ordinance.
In this study, the six stories analyzed collectively serve to promote colonial ideology and solidify the dominance of Japanese Empire over Koreans.By presenting police officers and government officials in a positive light, these stories emphasize their roles in maintaining order, protecting citizens, and providing guidance.The texts and visual images within the stories contain recurring themes that further reinforce colonial ideology.
Table 1 highlights the stories from the First Joseon Education Ordinance (1911)(1912)(1913)(1914)(1915)(1916)(1917)(1918)(1919) with a distinct focus on compliance with authority.During this period (before the 1919 [Samil] Independence Movement), Story 1 placed significant emphasis on the role and image of police officers in shaping the perceptions of Korean students.Additionally, visual image analysis was applied to interpret the accompanying image (Figure 1) and explore the depicted social power relations, with a focus on the posture and gestures that conveyed hierarchical dynamics.For example, Figure 1 reveals repressive behavior by Japanese police officers that couldn't be discerned from the text alone, as the Korean adult person in the image acted subserviently, bowing and unable to raise his face.The analysis unveiled a significant repetition of key phrases such as "anything wrong" and "give a lecture (or get mad)," emphasizing their meaning in power dynamics associated with the policeman's role.These repetitions emphasize that undesirable behavior results in reprimands and serve as a rhetorical tool to assert authority.Moreover, potential interpretations of the interaction between the police officer and the man are discussed, emphasizing the fear and submission associated with encounters with Japanese police officers during the colonial period.Furthermore, the depictions of officers being kind to law-abiding citizens but punitive to offenders not only framed them as enforcers of order but also highlighted the extensive power and control exerted by the Japanese government over Korean students.This revealed the oppressive nature of colonial rule.
Story 2 highlights the significance of following the Japanese government directives and showing respect for government officials.The military police protect Korean people and eliminate wrongdoing in Korean society, emphasizing that students must obey the orders of the military police and must not be rude to them using strong modal verbs like "must."These linguistic elements play a key role in accentuating the authority and influence of government officials.Specific vocabulary within the text, such as "憲兵" (military police) and "役人" (government officials), is examined to illustrate their contribution to the portrayal of government authority.
The text portrays military policemen in a positive light, emphasizing their role in safeguarding Korean citizens and underlining the necessity for all to follow Japanese government directives.Therefore, Stories 1 and 2 both emphasize the positive image of Japanese government officials to Korean students.However, this lesson contrasts with the historical records of Japanese police suppressing Koreans who incited the anti-colonial movements.Therefore, the two stories indicate that the textbooks were not merely for disseminating Japanese skills and knowledge but were used as a strategic tool to spread ruling Japanese colonial ideologies and reinforce their dominance over Korean students.
Following the 1919 [Samil] Independence Movement, Japan's strategy experienced significant changes with the introduction of the Second Joseon Education Ordinance.Japan recognized that oppressing the colonized was not effective means of making them subservient Japanese subjects.Consequently, substantial changes were made to the curriculum in an attempt to mitigate the harshest aspects of colonial policies.A new policy was implemented for the textbooks, and this change is evident in both the text and visual image of Story 3. Story 3 presents a short narrative set in a town on market day, incorporating words related to weather, towns, people, and police officers.It deviates from the previous portrayal of Japanese police officers as figures demanding obedience from Koreans.Instead, the story illustrates a police officer as kind, helpful, genuinely caring, and trustworthy person, especially as he assists a lost child in finding his parents.In Figure 2, by portraying Koreans with smaller visual images and, conversely, magnifying the image of the Japanese police officer, it emphasizes social power.Korean adults are positioned in the background, while Japanese police are in the foreground, highlighting that the most important image in Figure 2 is that the police.Furthermore, by depicting the Japanese police comforting and patting the head of a lost Korean child, the image further emphasizes the kind and caring attitude of the police.These image depictions, along with the text analysis, promote a pro-Japanese ideology by depicting the Japanese police officer as kind, caring and responsible while contrasting this with the indifference of the Korean citizens in the background, thereby emphasizing the contrast.
During the Second Joseon Education Ordinance period, Japanese officials were onsistently presented as kind, caring, and trustworthy.Such depiction aimed not only to mitigate their harsh and cruel government over Koreans but also to promote a positive image of Japanese officers, thereby encouraging Korean students to develop a pro-Japanese perspective.
During the implementation of the Third and Fourth Joseon Education Ordinances, there was a pronounced emphasis on assimilation as the Japanese Empire intensively sought to integrate Koreans into its cultural and societal norms, as exemplified by the concept of "Naeseonilche" (See page 6).Changes in the education system, designed to produce citizens fit for the war, led to the removal Korean language classes.As a result, Korean students were taught exclusively in Japanese, and the prohibition of using Korean in schools was replaced with Japanese to establish linguistic dominance and instill a Japanese identity in young Korean students.During the war period, the description of police officers is represented as monitoring Korean citizens, patrolling villages, and checking the usage of the Japanese language.The authority of Japanese police officers was particularly accentuated during this period.For instance, in Story 4, while everyone greets the police, the officers are shown as correcting improperly used Japanese without returning the greeting.The text utilizes specific expressions and phrases such as "quickly bowed to him," "greeted him hurriedly," and "corrected themselves right away," to emphasize the theme of good behavior and obedience to authority figures, particularly the police officer.The repetition of these phrases throughout the conversation reinforces their significance in conveying the story's moral lesson of showing respect and politeness to the Japanese police officer in authority.
The power dynamics within the story are explored, highlighting how the Japanese police officer represents a higher authority than the village leader and Kouzou's father.The narrative underlines the hierarchical order in which the characters greet and bow to the Japanese police officer, reinforcing the idea of the police officer as a symbol of Japanese colonial government authority.Furthermore, there are instances where the police officer commands Koreans for their correct use of the language, emphasizing the importance of proper greetings.
Story 4 also examines into the theme of language and cultural assimilation, highlighting the police officer's observation about the villagers' increasing use of the Japanese language.This depiction indicated the heightened status and power of such police authority figures during that era.Throughout this period, Japanese authority figures, especially police officers, maintained a strong and ever-present role, acting as enforcers of these colonial policies.Simultaneously, Japan capitalized on Korean's natural, financial, and human resources, intensifying its oppressive regime.
Story 5 is a concise narrative or dialogue that stresses the importance of colonized students saving money.It identifies key sentences and words within the text that emphasize the significance, such as "a reward," "one penny," and "save."In this story, a student is depicted in a school uniform giving a massage to her grandfather after school and then asking her mother for money as compensation.Accompanied by an image (Figure 3), the narrative interprets the visual elements, particularly the girl giving her grandfather a massage, to provide additional context and convey the message of devotion and obedience to authority figures like parents and grandparents.Furthermore, Story 5 investigates into ideological implications, establishing a connection between  The military police protect Korean people.
• They eliminated wrongdoings in Korean society.
• Students must obey their orders and must not be rude to them.• All Koreans must learn Japanese even in rural villages.

•
The police officers hold more power than anyone else and Koreans must greet them in Japanese.
Everyone must learn Japanese.Police officers conduct sudden visits to check on villagers.Furthermore, Korean citizens must show the highest respect to the Japanese police officers.
Story 5. Saving one penny (Joseonchongdogbu, 1940) • Teachers strongly encouraged Korean students to save even one penny.
All students must save money for the Japanese Empire.
these values and the broader colonial agenda of promoting devotion and obedience to the Japanese Emperor as a means of control and indoctrination.Additionally, the family members accept the teacher's emphasis on saving within the household.The story highlights the student's approach of prioritizing saving over wasteful spending, with the grandfather, who holds the highest position among the family members, encouraging saving and actively endorsing the Japanese ideology of savings.In doing so, the story highlights the colonial policy of encouraging students to save diligently and avoid wasteful spending.However, the reason or purpose for saving money wasn't specified, but it likely served the interests of the Japanese Empire.This is inferred from the known fund shortage for the war, leading to attempts to collect the necessary finances from the colonized citizens as Kwak Geon-hong illustrated (Geon-Hong, 2001).
Compared with the previous findings of Kim Sun-jeon et al. (2012), this study reveals that Japanese government officials were consistently depicted as superior to all Koreans.For instance, even a village leader would hurriedly approach the policemen and show his respects.Similarly, Lee Sang-euy (2010, p.166) pointed out that police officers were deeply involved in controlling the behavior, language, thoughts and daily lives of each Korean.Story 4 illustrates this by showing a policeman checking whether Koreans used Japanese in their daily conversations.
Furthermore, both Park Je-hong (2011) and Kim Sun-jeon et al. (2012) consistently portrayed an oppressive and controlling image of the Japanese government and officials towards Koreas throughout the colonial era.However, this study presents a different perspective: a Japanese policeman is depicted as a very caring and kind person (Figure 2) who consoles a lost child and actively seeks out his parents while Korean citizens were ignorant of the lost child.Additionally, as argued by Park Je-hong (2011) and Kim Sun-jeon et al. (2012), Figure 1 shows the oppressive image of Japanese police officers bowing, unable to lift their faces, and obedient in front of Japanese police.However, in story 3, a positive and caring image of the police is also depicted.
During wartime, Japan needed substantial funds to continue its aggressive war campaigns in China and Pacific.As demonstrated in story 5, rather than policemen, it was the teachers who strongly encouraged their students to save even a single penny for the Japanese Empire.In summary, while Japan did exert coercive control over Korean society through military police or policemen, the textbooks analyzed suggest an attempt to promote a positive image of policemen during the Second Education ordinance era.

Conclusion
Studying Japanese language textbooks from the Japanese colonial era shows how the Japanese education was used strategically as a means of imperialism.While these textbooks seem to be primarily about language learning, they are interspersed with both subtle and distinct messages supporting Japan's colonial aims.The changing depiction of police officers (initially as dominating figures, then as carers/helpers, and later as advocates for cultural integration) gives insight into Japan's evolving colonial methods.Furthermore, there is a depiction of teachers' strong emphasis on saving even one penny.Without giving a clear reason for the importance of saving, it seems the textbooks were steering Korean resources to support Japan during wartime.Therefore, this study highlights the role of textbooks in promoting colonial objectives.Through a deep analysis of these educational materials from the Japanese colonial era, this study reveals the subtle strategies and intentions hidden within the content by Japan.This study provides evidence of how education, as presented through colonial textbooks, was systematically utilized and positioned within the framework of colonial ideologies.
The limitations of this study include several aspects.Firstly, the overall volume of data collected for analysis was restricted.Future investigations could benefit from examining a larger collection of texts and visual images from an expanded selection of textbooks.Secondly, our focus was narrowed to Japanese language textbooks designed for early elementary school students.
Exploring textbooks meant for higher elementary grades or those from different subjects could provide a wider range of texts and visual images.
The findings of this study suggest several implications for future research.One possible avenue for further investigation is to explore the impact of these Japanese textbooks on the attitudes of the Korean population towards the colonial government and their long-term effects on the education system.It is essential to critically examine what educational materials, including textbooks, instructional guides, and other resources introduced by the Japanese colonial government, teach and the ideas they convey, particularly in contexts where there are power imbalances between the colonizers and the colonized.

Table 1 . Finding Story Lesson Unsaid Ideological Message
• Don't do anything wrong, then police officers would not get mad/rebuke.•Policeofficers are very kind to give directions to Korean citizens.