Implications of virtual reality (VR) for school teachers and instructional designers: An empirical investigation

Abstract The present study involved an experimental inquiry wherein the researcher examined the possible impact of “textual cues” and “summarising scaffolding” on cognitive load, mental model, and learning performance. The study was conducted on a sample of 122 primary school pupils from Hyderabad, India. It commenced on 20 January 2021 and lasted till 28 October 2021. Using a randomization process, the participants were allocated to one of four experimental groups (D1, D2, D3, and D4). The results of the ANOVA analysis indicate that the utilisation of textual cues had a noteworthy and favourable effect on both the learning performance and the mental model. The implementation of summarising scaffolding yielded a remarkable enhancement in the mental model. The absence of significant “interaction effects” suggests that the implementation of immersive virtual reality, accompanied by textual cues or summarising scaffolding, can be advantageous for young learners. These discoveries hold particular significance for stakeholders involved in the field of education, particularly teachers and students, and possess noteworthy ramifications for the development of efficacious immersive learning environments.

researcher examined the possible impact of "textual cues" and "summarising scaffolding" on cognitive load, mental model, and learning performance.The study was conducted on a sample of 122 primary school pupils from Hyderabad, India.It commenced on 20 January 2021 and lasted till 28 October 2021.Using a randomization process, the participants were allocated to one of four experimental groups (D1, D2, D3, and D4).The results of the ANOVA analysis indicate that the utilisation of textual cues had a noteworthy and favourable effect on both the learning performance and the mental model.The implementation of summarising scaffolding yielded a remarkable enhancement in the mental model.The absence of significant "interaction effects" suggests that the implementation of immersive Ashraf Alam ABOUT THE AUTHOR Ashraf Alam is a Ph.D. Scholar at IIT Kharagpur.He holds a master's degree in education and a bachelor's degree in computer science and engineering from the University of Delhi.Over the course of Ashraf's academic journey, his research and teaching interest has inclined towards the philosophy and sociology of education, and in areas of research ethics, educational psychology, and educational technology.He works at the crossroads of research and action for sustainable development, focusing on policies that impact the vulnerable.Currently, he is researching the different facets of 'Positive Education' at the Rekhi Centre of Excellence for the Science of Happiness at IIT Kharagpur under the esteemed guidance and patronage of Prof. Atasi Mohanty.

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
This study underscores the potential benefits of integrating VR with pedagogical approaches to enhance educational outcomes.The findings suggest how instructional designers can augment the educational experience by prioritizing cues that facilitate student engagement with the pedagogical content, while also directing attention toward immersion and how school teachers can construct supportive structures that promote the act of summarization among pupils, particularly in the context of knowledge retention and assimilation.These discoveries hold particular significance for teachers and students and possess noteworthy ramifications for the development of efficacious immersive learning environments.The findings go beyond merely restating the already known principles and contribute towards a nuanced understanding of the field.Such an approach not only validates the theoretical frameworks but also translates them into actionable insights.The implications drawn offer a fertile ground for future research and practical application, making the article a valuable addition to the existing body of knowledge.

Introduction
Virtual reality (VR) is a promising technological advancement that provides learners with immersive and interactive experiences that closely resemble reality (Wexelblat, 2014).The immersive environment is created by utilising the visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory senses (Sherman & Craig, 2003).The increasing prevalence of virtual reality in diverse educational domains such as science, history, language, biology, and medicine is a noteworthy development (Christou, 2010).These technologies exhibit the capability to augment engagement, knowledge dissemination, empathy, and learner autonomy (Helsel, 1992).The progressions made in virtual reality technology have significantly improved the level of immersion and interactivity within virtual environments (Fuchs et al., 2011).It is believed that with ongoing endeavours, the desired level of learning performance can be attained.Several studies have indicated that low-cost head-mounted displays (HMDs) are more effective for instructional purposes than expensive immersive virtual reality (VR) technology.
The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) emphasises that the efficacy of virtual reality (VR)-based education is contingent not solely on the technological tools employed, but rather on the pedagogical strategies implemented within the VR module (Makransky & Petersen, 2021).
Positive developments have been reported in those studies.The instructional strategy of summarising (King, 1992) has been found to be highly effective in enhancing academic performance, comprehension, and achievement (Abualigah et al., 2020).This is achieved by enabling learners to extract the main ideas from a lesson and connect them with their pre-existing knowledge (Tourigny & Capus, 1998).The efficacy of the summarization scaffolding (Ukrainetz, 2015) within the virtual reality domain is presently under investigation.Despite the existence of divergent research outcomes concerning the efficacy of summarising scaffolding in VR-based science education, certain investigations indicate that post-VR summarisation can result in enhanced learning outcomes.This holds particular promise for young learners who may encounter challenges in discerning the primary concepts presented in educational resources.Additional investigation may aid in ascertaining the efficacy of summarization techniques (Allahyari et al., 2017) for juvenile learners within the virtual reality milieu.The integration of visual aids in educational resources can significantly aid learners in concentrating on essential information, enabling them to employ summarisation techniques proficiently.The utilisation of visual aids can aid young students who may encounter difficulties in recognising crucial information independently, thereby serving as a constructive approach to mitigate the stress they experience.The utilisation of visual aids (Rivera, 2011) can enhance the comprehension and cognitive processing of learners, resulting in improved knowledge acquisition and retention of information.Prior studies have reported favourable outcomes associated with diverse visual cues (Wang et al., 2020), including the use of highlighting (Leutner et al., 2007), or underlining textual content, pointing gestures in twodimensional videos, and the integration of visual cues in three-dimensional animations.The potential advantages of utilising visual cues in immersive virtual reality settings (Araiza-Alba et al., 2022) for primary school pupils are intriguing to consider.Although the existing literature may be limited, there exists a potential for novel and inventive investigations to be carried out in this domain.Additionally, it is plausible that the integration of visual prompts may augment the cognitive capabilities of learners within the context of an immersive virtual reality (IVR) setting.Numerous studies have assessed the educational outcomes, behavioural patterns, and emotional responses associated with virtual reality-based instruction, which is a positive development (See Figures 1-5).In the future, it would be intriguing to observe an increased emphasis on investigations that centre on learners' mental models.Mental models (Greca & Moreira, 2000) are a potent instrument that can facilitate learners' comprehension and interpretation of the surrounding environment.The utilisation of cognitive frameworks enables learners to anticipate and elucidate phenomena and concepts, thereby fostering substantial advancement in their cognitive faculties.Despite the inconsistent findings of prior research, simulated environments may prove efficacious in enhancing mental models.
The objective of this investigation is to carry out a randomised trial in order to examine the possible advantages of utilising summarising techniques (Balaban, 2016) and textual prompts  (Phillips et al., 2019) in the context of virtual reality (Helsel, 1992) with regards to learning outcomes, mental representation, and cognitive load.The present research has the potential to bring forth significant findings vis-à-vis the interplay between summarization tactics and textual indicators.

Unveiling the Notions of Cognitive Load: Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Germane Perspectives
According to the tenets of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), effective management of the quantity of information processed during the learning process can serve to mitigate the onset of cognitive load (CL) and enhance the capacity for information retention.The concept of cognitive load is a captivating notion that facilitates comprehension of the cognitive effort necessary for the processes of reasoning and thinking.This concept can be categorised into three distinct groups,    namely intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load.The manageability of intrinsic cognitive load is contingent upon the quantity of elements that necessitate processing in working memory and the learner's pre-existing knowledge.
The authors express optimism regarding the potential benefits of attending to instructional design (Isman, 2011), specifically in terms of organising and presenting learning materials.The author suggests that such efforts reduce extraneous cognitive load and ultimately enhance the effectiveness of the learning process.The presence of residual cognitive resources among learners, which are utilised for tasks directly related to learning such as reorganisation, extraction, comparison, and reasoning, is commonly referred to as germane cognitive load.This phenomenon is highly beneficial for the learning process.Studies have indicated that cognitive abilities have the potential to be enhanced through consistent practice and training.
Emotions are complex psychological experiences that have been studied and defined in various ways by researchers (Pessoa, 2008;Plass & Kaplan, 2016).The absence of a universally agreedupon definition has led to the adoption of different conceptualizations of emotions.In the context of this discussion, the researchers choose to use Russell's (2003) dimensional model of emotions as a comprehensive framework to understand and describe emotions.Russell's (2003) dimensional model of emotions posits that emotions are based on a neurophysiological state known as core affect.Core affect is a fundamental aspect of emotions that individuals can consciously access as a simple, nonreflective feeling.It represents the basic building blocks of emotional experiences and serves as the foundation for the different emotions people may experience in various situations.Within this dimensional model, emotions are characterized by two fundamental dimensions: pleasure and arousal (see Figure 6).These dimensions help to describe and differentiate emotional experiences.The pleasure dimension represents how emotions are experienced as either pleasant or unpleasant.For example, joy and happiness fall under the category of pleasant emotions, while sadness and anger fall under the category of unpleasant emotions.The arousal dimension, on the other hand, reflects how emotions are experienced in terms of activation or deactivation.Emotions with high arousal are associated with heightened activation and energy, such as excitement or fear.Conversely, emotions with low arousal are associated with reduced activation and energy, like calmness or contentment.By combining these two dimensions (pleasure and arousal), Russell's model allows for a more nuanced understanding of emotions.The model proposes that specific emotions can be characterized by their location in this two-dimensional space.For instance, joy might be described as high pleasure and high arousal, while sadness could be categorized as low pleasure and low arousal.To visualize this dimensional model, researchers often use a graph or plot known as an emotion circumplex.In this graph, emotions are represented as points within a circular space, where the distance from the center of the circle indicates the level of arousal, and the position around the circumference indicates the level of pleasure.The researchers in this context choose to adopt Russell's dimensional model of emotions, which defines emotions as core affect-neurophysiological states consciously accessible as simple, nonreflective feelings.This model describes emotions along two fundamental dimensions: pleasure (pleasant vs. unpleasant) and arousal (activation vs. deactivation), which together offer a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of emotional experiences.By employing this model, researchers examine and discuss emotions in a more systematic and organized manner.
Comprehending the significance of load is imperative in virtual reality (VR) based educational settings, as students are presented with a broad spectrum of representations in a visually stimulating stereoscopic environment (Mukai et al., 2011), which can augment their cognitive learning experience.Notably, intricate visual representations and excessive details may escalate cognitive load and diminish engagement.However, it is imperative to acknowledge that students have the capacity to engage themselves completely in the digital realm, which could alleviate their cognitive load.Evaluating and modifying cognitive load among students in educational research pertaining to virtual reality (VR) applications is critical in attaining favourable results.The present investigation aims to examine the potential benefits of incorporating textual cues and summarising scaffolding into the immersive virtual reality setting on students' cognitive load.

Potential Negative Effects and Barriers Associated with Incorporation of Virtual Reality (VR) Technology and Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) in Classroom Teaching-Learning
Incorporating Virtual Reality (VR) technology and Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) in classroom teaching-learning can introduce innovative and immersive educational experiences.However, several potential negative effects and barriers need to be carefully considered, especially when working with school students.
(1) Motion Sickness: Motion sickness is a prevalent concern when using VR in the classroom (Hedrick et al., 2022).Young students, in particular, may be more susceptible to experiencing motion sickness due to their developing vestibular systems (Shibata et al., 2018).If VR content involves rapid movements or scenes that do not align with physical sensations, students may feel dizzy, nauseous, or disoriented (Shibata, 2019).To avoid this, educators should opt for slower movements and design VR experiences with motion comfort in mind (Mareta et al., 2022).
(2) Cognitive Overload: The introduction of VR can lead to cognitive overload, overwhelming students with an abundance of sensory information.Immersive VR environments can be highly stimulating, causing students to struggle with processing and retaining educational content (Bower et al., 2014).It is vital for educators to strike a balance and provide clear learning objectives while ensuring that the VR experience enhances, rather than distracts from, the learning process (Choi et al., 2016).
( (6) Safety and Supervision: While VR provides unique experiences, it also raises concerns about students' safety and the need for proper supervision during VR sessions to prevent accidents or inappropriate use.
Thus, while VR technology offers exciting possibilities for enhancing classroom teaching-learning experiences, educators and policymakers must be mindful of the potential negative effects and barriers.To maximize the benefits of VR in education, careful consideration of motion sickness, cognitive overload, and the needs of students with impairments is essential.Implementing inclusive design, providing proper training and support for teachers, and addressing financial constraints can foster a more equitable and enriching VR-powered learning environment for school students.

Design-Based Research (DBR) in Scaffolding the Integration of Different Immersive VR Settings for Classroom Teaching-Learning for School Students
Design-Based Research (DBR) can play a pivotal role in scaffolding the integration of different immersive VR settings for classroom teaching-learning for school students.DBR is a methodology that combines research and design to develop and refine educational interventions (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012).When applied to the implementation of VR in the classroom, DBR can ensure that the integration is effective, pedagogically sound, and responsive to the unique needs of students and teachers.Here is how DBR can be incorporated in scaffolding VR settings: (1) Identifying Learning Objectives: DBR starts by identifying specific learning objectives that VR can enhance.Research should be conducted to understand which topics, concepts, or skills would benefit most from an immersive VR experience.This ensures that VR is purposefully integrated into the curriculum to support student learning.
(2) Iterative Design Process: DBR involves iterative cycles of design, implementation, and evaluation (Design-Based Research Collective, 2003).In the context of VR in the classroom, this means creating different VR settings or scenarios and piloting them with students and teachers.Feedback and data from these pilots are used to refine and improve the VR experiences over time.
(3) Collaborative Design: Collaboration between researchers, educators, and VR developers is crucial.Teachers provide valuable insights into the specific needs of their students, while researchers contribute expertise in pedagogy and assessment.VR developers ensure that the technological aspects of the VR settings align with educational goals.
(4) Formative Evaluation: Formative evaluation is an integral part of DBR, where researchers continuously assess the VR interventions during the development process.Data collected from observations, surveys, and interviews inform further design improvements.
(5) Adapting to Student Diversity: VR settings should be scaffolded to cater to the diverse needs of students.DBR allows for customization of VR experiences based on individual learning styles, abilities, and interests.This personalization enhances student engagement and learning outcomes.
(6) Alignment with Curriculum: DBR ensures that VR settings align with the curriculum and standards.The experiences should complement and enhance existing instructional methods, rather than acting as standalone activities.
(7) Professional Development: DBR recognizes the importance of teacher professional development.Training sessions on effectively using VR in the classroom, managing VR resources, and integrating VR with other teaching strategies can empower educators to make the most of the technology.
(8) Long-term Sustainability: DBR also considers the long-term sustainability of VR integration.This includes assessing the feasibility of implementing VR in the classroom, addressing technical challenges, and planning for future scalability and maintenance.
By incorporating DBR principles, educators can scaffold different immersive VR settings effectively, ensuring that VR becomes an integral and meaningful part of the classroom teaching-learning experience for school students.This research-based approach supports continuous improvement, responsiveness to student needs, and the alignment of VR interventions with educational objectives.

The Art of Summarizing: Condensing Information for Improved Comprehension
Summarization is an effective strategy for enhancing learners' understanding of educational resources (Haiduc et al., 2010).It refers to the act of expressing the main concepts of a lecture or discussion using one's own language (Wormeli, 2005).The act of summarising can be a valuable technique when faced with diverse forms of information delivery, such as lectures, slideshows, animations, or printed materials that include visual aids.The summarising strategy is considered a potent tool for teaching as it engages learners in cognitive processing (Gambhir & Gupta, 2017).Several advantages of this strategy have been identified by researchers in comparison to alternative approaches.It is commendable that pupils are afforded the chance to discern fundamental concepts and reinforce significant particulars that buttress these concepts (Avivah et al., 2022).Moreover, it affords students the chance to recognise and retain significant keywords and phrases from the designated reading material (Dhawale et al., 2021).The instructional manual instructs pupils on the art of summarising voluminous textual material into more succinct and condensed points.The implementation of summary activities facilitates the process of discerning primary concepts and essential material by removing superfluous details, which aids students in comprehending and retaining information (Tahseen et al., 2021).Prior research has indicated that the implementation of summarising techniques may not yield positive outcomes for elementary-aged pupils.Nevertheless, there exists the possibility for these techniques to offer benefits in alternative capacities.Additional research could enhance our comprehension of how to modify these approaches to cater to the requirements of younger students more effectively.Notably, generative strategies are applicable to learners across all age groups, and with appropriate assistance, younger pupils can derive comparable advantages to their older counterparts.The implementation of summarising scaffolding can facilitate the integration of novel information into pre-existing cognitive frameworks among young learners, thereby enhancing their summarization skills (Elfayoumy & Thoppil, 2014).Moreover, there is a potential for further investigation into the efficacy of summarization techniques within virtual reality-based education, given the inconclusive findings of prior research.There are promising prospects for conducting further empirical research to investigate the beneficial impacts of summarising techniques in virtual reality-based education.The present research is noteworthy as it investigates the potential of summarising scaffolding to facilitate the completion of generative learning tasks by primary school pupils in the context of virtual reality-based education.

Constructing Cognitive Frameworks: Factors and Tools for Mental Model Formation
The concept of mental model (Schneider, 2001) pertains to a distinct and specialised category of cognitive representation that distinguishes itself from other forms of representation, including but not limited to images, propositions, or schemas (Hochpöchler et al., 2013).Mental models are intriguing constructs that are constructed based on our interpretation and comprehension of occurrences (Kanjug & Chaijaroen, 2012).The human cognitive system comprises declarative, procedural, and control knowledge, which facilitates our understanding of the surrounding environment.The human mind's ability to generate mental representations or visualisations in reaction to particular circumstances, difficulties, or ideas is truly remarkable.Mental models are highly advantageous instruments that facilitate articulating, elucidating, and anticipating forthcoming occurrences (Ifenthaler et al., 2007).The utilisation of models enables the simplification of intricate systems and the generation of novel ideas, thereby facilitating the process of problemsolving (Schnotz & Kürschner, 2008).Recent research has demonstrated that several factors have a beneficial impact on the formation of mental models.These factors include the utilisation of multimedia tools or simulations, as well as the provision of supportive information.The empirical evidence suggests that digital simulations can stimulate the cognitive processes essential for constructing mental models (Zhao et al., 2020).Furthermore, the provision of suitable information during instructional sessions has been demonstrated to be efficacious.The utilisation of virtual reality technology and textual prompts within educational resources exhibits significant potential in enhancing the formation of cognitive frameworks among learners within this particular setting.
Various methods can be employed to assess mental models, such as utilising illustrations, surveys, or cognitive evaluations (Hall, 2011).Drawing is a valuable tool for elementary school students to represent their mental models, allowing them to visually express intricate relationships and abstract concepts.Studies have demonstrated that the act of drawing is a beneficial mechanism for recognising cognitive frameworks in various settings, such as educational games and ecological instruction.The present research has the capacity to uncover the ways in which textual cues integrated into virtual reality learning materials may have a beneficial effect on the formation of mental models (Zhang et al., 2010) among pupils in primary education.The utilisation of drawing as a means of measurement holds the potential to yield significant insights regarding the efficacy of this particular approach.By delineating the determinants that impact the formation of cognitive frameworks and ascertaining their reliable assessment methods, scholars and instructors can proficiently devise and appraise pedagogical measures that facilitate learners' cognitive maturation.

Enhancing Learning with Textual Cues: Unveiling the Impact on Memory and Comprehension
In the realm of textual analysis (Spivey, 1990), certain cues within a given text can serve as valuable indicators for interpreting its intended meaning (Van den Broek, 2010).Utilising cues or signals can effectively capture the attention of learners and highlight significant aspects of educational content (Gaddy et al., 2001).Cues are effective instruments for individuals engaged in the process of learning (Spivey, 1987).Both verbal and visual aids can assist learners in identifying essential information, organising and engaging with pre-existing knowledge, and decreasing cognitive burden during the learning process (Cole, 2006).Categorizing visual cues into textual and symbol cues is a noteworthy observation.Diverse modalities including graphics, text, colours, lines, arrows, or dots may serve as cues (Beck, 1984).The present research is investigating the efficacy of utilising textual cues that are highlighted in red to facilitate the identification of crucial information in educational materials.Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of textual cues, particularly those utilising colour components such as green and red, as pedagogical aids in connecting textual information with animated videos and static images.Alpizar et al. ( 2020) conducted a meta-analysis which revealed a positive effect of textual cues on learning outcomes.The influence of textual indicators may exhibit a favourable variability contingent upon the educational milieu and the mode of communication employed.Research has demonstrated that textual cues are highly efficacious in enhancing memory and comprehension in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional models.They have also been shown to augment vocabulary acquisition in conventional paper-based learning and improve conceptual understanding in gamebased learning on desktop platforms.Cancino et al. (2021) found that while textual cues did not yield a statistically significant improvement in learning outcomes for traditional paper material, their study provides valuable insights that can inform the development of more effective learning strategies in the future.Numerous research endeavours have demonstrated the favourable impact of cues within the virtual reality (VR) milieu.Additionally, there exists a possibility for additional investigation into textual cues that provide particularised information.Furthermore, Wang et al. (2020) ascertained that textual cues can benefit retention.Although the enhancement of transfer skills may not be evident, this discovery underscores the possible advantages of utilising textual cues.Investigating the impact of textual cues on retention and transfer within the virtual reality learning context may yield significant findings.In addition, it is suggested that forthcoming research endeavours delve into the possibility of augmenting mental models, alongside academic achievement, attitudes, and cognitive load, which have been the predominant areas of interest in prior studies.Furthermore, a significant amount of research remains to be conducted regarding the potential benefits of integrating textual cues and summarising scaffolds.Cues are a highly effective pedagogical resource that facilitate the identification of crucial information, the organisation and integration of prior knowledge, and the minimisation of cognitive burden during the learning process.Research has demonstrated the efficacy of utilising color-based textual cues to establish connections between textual information and both static images and dynamic video content.The efficacy of visual aids in enhancing learning may be contingent upon the learning environment and media employed.Nonetheless, this observation suggests that there exist means to augment learning through the use of visual aids.Further investigation is required to fully comprehend the effects of textual cues on the retention and transfer of knowledge within the virtual reality setting.
Nevertheless, there exists a possibility for the discovery of novel perspectives by investigating their interplay with summarising scaffolding.

Research Questions
The implementation of the summarising strategy is a pedagogical approach that has been shown to be efficacious in promoting knowledge acquisition by facilitating learners' ability to identify and retain crucial information.Textual cues can serve as an effective mechanism to assist learners in directing their attention towards pertinent information.The current state of knowledge regarding the interplay between these two methodologies and their effects on educational achievements is still incomplete, yet advancements are being made.Furthermore, prospective research endeavours concerning the acquisition of knowledge within virtual reality (VR) settings possess the capability to investigate the cognitive frameworks of learners, in conjunction with their comprehension or transfer of knowledge.The present research has the capacity to achieve noteworthy advancements in bridging the existing lacunae in our comprehension of the potential benefits of summarising textual cues and scaffolding in enhancing cognitive load, mental model, and learning performance.Here, the researcher has developed four distinct educational resources pertaining to the "areas and volume" and conducted a randomised trial within an elementary school based in Hyderabad, India to explore the following research questions: (1) How does textual cues impact mental model, cognitive load, and learning outcomes?
(2) What is the relationship between summarising strategies and learning outcomes, mental model development, and cognitive load?
(3) In what manner do the strategies employed for summarising and the textual cues present in a given text interact to benefit learning outcomes such as cognitive load, mental model, and retention and transfer?

Participants
The present investigation comprised a heterogeneous sample of 122 participants, comprising 61 male and 61 female students enrolled in an elementary school in Hyderabad, India.The study's subjects were comprised of students who were in fifth grade, with a mean age of 10.11 years.The study was carried out in accordance with appropriate ethical protocols.The study obtained written informed consent from the parents of all participants.The investigator proactively conducted unstructured interviews with mathematics educators and a randomly chosen cohort of pupils to assess their pre-existing comprehension of the "areas and volume" and their familiarity with virtual reality technology prior to the study.These informal and unstructured interviews revealed that the participants possessed normal or corrected visual acuity.Despite their unfamiliarity with the subject matter and limited exposure to virtual reality, they were able to interact with the educational resources effectively.

Virtual Reality Content
The researcher successfully created four educational resources for teaching the mathematical concept of "areas and volume".The virtual reality content was computer generated (3D).The participants interacted with the content, i.e., it was an interactive educational resource.We provided students with virtual manipulatives, including blocks and shapes, which they interacted with and used to build different 2D shapes for understanding area and 3D shapes for understanding volume.Students dragged and dropped these manipulatives to visualize how the size of the shape changes.We created a virtual environment where students explored 2D shapes in a 3D setting.For example, they walked around a virtual room filled with different shapes, and by clicking on each shape, the area of the shape was be displayed.We designed interactive games where students calculated the area of different shapes and volume of objects.For instance, they explored a virtual garden and calculated the area of each flowerbed and estimate the volume of water in a virtual fish tank.We took students on a virtual field trip to historical landmarks and buildings with unique shapes and designs.Students learnt about the architecture and history of these structures while also applying the concepts of area and volume.We also developed immersive stories and narratives that involved characters exploring different areas and volumes.It was in the form of a treasure hunt, where students solved mathematical problems related to area and volume to progress in the story.By using these types of VR content, students had an immersive and hands-on learning experience with the concepts of area and volume.This approach enhanced their understanding, retention, and enthusiasm for mathematics while making the learning process enjoyable and memorable.The initial presentation comprised an engaging audio-visual production that highlighted the captivating and distinctive attributes of shapes of real-world objects in and around us.The experience lasted for a duration of five minutes and twenty seconds and was deemed to be highly enjoyable.This was captured by asking participants about their experiences through unstructured interviews and discussions.The subsequent material exhibited comparable quality, comprising a total of 11 textual cues that were visually emphasised in red and had a duration of 3 minutes and 28 seconds.The third instructional material was developed with the purpose of aiding learners in the retrieval of crucial information.This was achieved through the provision of useful cues and blank spaces for completion, utilising four distinct summarisation frameworks.The participants were afforded the chance to condense the characteristics of square and subsequently prompted to complete the sentence, "cube has ____ edges".Positive developments were reported.The scaffolding for summarization was uniform and sustained for a duration of 228 seconds.The fourth material employed textual cues and summarising scaffolds for a period of four minutes.The experimental setup was equipped with essential instrumentation, comprising a laptop, an integrated head-mounted display, and a connecting cable.Positive developments were reported.The computer was able to establish a functional connection with the head-mounted display via a cable.VLC multimedia player was used to deliver virtual reality content to the students.The research comprised a sample of 122 primary school pupils from Hyderabad, India who were in fifth grade, with an average age of 10.11 years, which is considered a substantial sample size for academic inquiry.Positive developments were reported.
Prior to the commencement of the study, written informed consent was obtained from the parents of all participants.Preceding the experiment, informal interviews were carried out with mathematics educators and a randomly chosen cohort of students to assess their pre-existing knowledge of areas and volumes, and their familiarity with virtual reality.The study participants possessed normal or corrected-to-normal visual acuity and demonstrated the ability to effectively interact with the virtual reality educational resources, despite their initial lack of familiarity with the subject matter.Virtual reality technology provides a valuable opportunity for individuals to engage in novel experiences and expand their perceptual horizons.

Research Design
The investigators meticulously determined the necessary sample size for their investigation to guarantee the attainment of statistically significant findings.The objective of the experiment was to achieve a substantial effect size (η 2 p >0.15), which shows great potential.Because the sample size was 122, exceeding the minimum required sample size of 68, is highly encouraging.The study employed a between-subjects design with a 2 × 2 matrix, consisting of two variables: the existence or non-existence of textual cues, and the existence or non-existence of summarising scaffolding.
The study employed random assignment of participants to four experimental conditions, namely D1, D2, D3, and D4.D1 did not receive any textual cues or summarising scaffolding, D2 received textual cues but no summarising scaffolding, D3 received summarising scaffolding but no textual cues, and D4 received both textual cues and summarising scaffolding.

Methodology
The research was carried out within the confines of a classroom environment and spanned a duration of 55 minutes for the cohorts that utilised summarising scaffolding (D3 and D4), thereby affording them sufficient time to accomplish the assigned task.The study duration for groups that did not employ summarising scaffolding, namely D1 and D2, was 50 minutes, which was deemed adequate for task completion.The study was meticulously planned and executed in three discrete phases: pre-learning, virtual reality-based learning, and post-learning.The participants were presented with unambiguous guidelines on the operation of the virtual reality (VR) headset apparatus and were afforded a chance to demonstrate their existing comprehension of the mathematical concepts of area and volume via a preliminary assessment.The participants were randomly allocated by the researcher to one of the four experimental conditions.During the learning phase, the participants were provided with an opportunity to acquire knowledge about the mathematical concepts of area and volume through a VR-based approach.Participants were equipped with a head-mounted display and presented with the choice to utilise earphones for the purpose of receiving instructional explanations.Furthermore, participants were given the option to opt-in or opt-out of receiving textual cues and summarising scaffolding.Distinct techniques were assigned to the participants in each of the four groups to acquire and condense knowledge.This enabled the testing and evaluation of diverse approaches.Following the learning session, the participants underwent a series of assessments, including the cognitive load scale, performance test measuring retention and transfer, and mental model test.

Tools and Techniques
A test was administered to the participants in order to assess their overall understanding of the mathematical concepts of area and volume.The examination encompassed diverse question formats, comprising seven items with a single-choice response, one with multiple responses, and two with fill-in-the-blank responses.The questions presented a chance to demonstrate fundamental comprehension of the mathematical concepts of area and volume.The question with multiple response options had two valid answers, and each correct option had a point value of two.The assessment consisted of four fill-in-the-blank questions, with each blank carrying a point value of two.The highest possible score attainable was 26 points.The questions are as follows: Single-choice response: 1. What is the area of a rectangle with length 6 cm and width 4 cm? 9.The area of a square with side length 9 cm is _____ cm².
10.The volume of a cylinder with radius 2 cm and height 6 cm is _____ cm³.
Three elementary mathematics educators devised a performance assessment comprising the retention and transfer tests.The assessment of retention administered to the participants afforded them the chance to exhibit their comprehension of fundamental principles.The test consisted of six items in the format of single-choice questions, three items requiring the completion of a sentence, and seven items in the format of true/false statements.Performance on the retention test resulted in a cumulative score of 14 points.Each item that was answered correctly with true/ false was assigned a value of one point, indicating that the performance was commendable.The transfer assessment afforded individuals the chance to demonstrate their capacity to employ the information they gained from virtual reality-centered education in novel contexts.The assessment comprised three items in the multiple-choice format and two in the short essay format.The provision of short essay items afforded the participants a chance to exhibit their comprehension of the assigned textual material.One inquiry posed was: "Area and volume have different measuring units.Why?"The score obtained in the transfer test was 27 points.

Mental Models
The mental model test was created by the instructor with the aim of assessing the participants' comprehension and expertise on the topic of the mathematical concepts of area and volume.Two assignments were given.The initial task presented a stimulating prospect for the individuals to exhibit their inventiveness and comprehension of the mathematical concepts of area and volume by illustrating the 2-D and 3-D shapes and furnishing captivating particulars and attributes of squares, rectangles, circles, pyramids, spheres, and cones via textual or graphical means.The second task allowed the participants to demonstrate their proficiency by elucidating the precise procedures for sketching the different 2-D and 3-D shapes verbally.During the third stage, the cuboid was depicted to illustrate the calculation of its volume using the area of the rectangle and its height.The assessment of the mental model examination was conducted based on three distinct ways, namely the written explanation (15 points), drawing explanation (15 points), and detail explanation (5 points).This was used to evaluate the participants' aptitude in delineating their mathematical thinking and elaborating on the procedural aspects of the drawing.

Cognitive Load
The cognitive load scale was effectively employed to gauge the cognitive load exerted by participants in virtual reality-based educational settings.The measuring instrument is a cutting-edge scale devised by Andersen and Makransky (2021) to assess the three facets of cognitive load proficiently (Table 1).We modified it before using it.The significance of comprehending intrinsic cognitive load is emphasized in items 1 to 3, as it can aid in effectively managing the inherent complexity of educational resources.The fourth through tenth items of the assessment evaluates extraneous cognitive load, which refers to the additional cognitive effort that learners expend as a result of external factors beyond the learning materials, such as interruptions or unclear directives.This data can assist learners in recognizing and surmounting these obstacles, resulting in a more efficient educational encounter.The assessment items numbered 11 through 13 have been specifically developed to evaluate germane cognitive load.This refers to learners' cognitive effort to establish connections between newly acquired information and their pre-existing knowledge.This implies that the learners are actively participating in acquiring knowledge and striving to establish significant associations.The reliability of the cognitive load scale was found to be high, as indicated by Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.799.

Data Analysis
The present research effectively manipulated two independent variables: textual cues (presence versus absence) and summarising scaffolding (presence versus absence).The research investigated participants' pre-existing and acquired knowledge regarding the mathematical understanding of the concepts of area and volume, evaluation of their mental models, and the impact of cognitive load on these variables.A set of two-way ANOVAs was employed to analyze the data to investigate the primary effects of the independent variables and their interaction effects on the dependent variables.The research conducted a comprehensive examination by utilizing a sequence of one-way ANOVAs and t-tests to investigate the distinctions among the four experimental conditions.The SPSS software was utilized to conduct the statistical analysis effectively.

Cognitive Load
The researcher employed ANOVA analyses to investigate probable dissimilarities in cognitive load among the four cohorts, namely D1, D2, D3, and D4.The research revealed that neither textual cues nor summarising scaffolding, which encompassed intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load, adversely affected cognitive load (See Table 2).

Mental Model
This research aimed to investigate the beneficial effects of two distinct approaches, namely textual cues and summarising scaffolding, on the development of mental models in a drawing task.Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to investigate the primary impact of each strategy and their interaction.The findings suggest that both textual cues and summarising scaffolding had a noteworthy effect on mental models, as evidenced by the statistical analysis (textual cues: F(1,149) = 15.924,p = .000,η 2 p = The subject matter addressed in the VR instruction turned out to be exceedingly intricate.

2.
The VR instruction encompassed procedures that I found exceedingly intricate.

3.
This VR instruction delved into concepts and definitions that I found remarkably complex.

4.
The instruction and/or explanation proffered in the VR material proved to be highly ambiguous.

5.
The instructions and explanations provided in the VR material demonstrated remarkable efficacy for learning.

6.
The instructions and/or explanations featured in the VR material were replete with ambiguous content.

7.
The elements present in the virtual environment obfuscated the learning process.

8.
The virtual environment proved to be highly effective for facilitating learning.

9.
The virtual environment abounded in extraneous content.
10. Navigating the virtual environment to find pertinent learning information posed a challenge.
11.The simulation undeniably augmented my comprehension of the covered topics.
12. The simulation truly augmented my understanding of the fundamental comprehension of the mathematical concepts of area and volume, and their associated properties and applications.
13.The simulation genuinely enriched my understanding of various concepts and definitions.The observed phenomenon of the differential impact of the two strategies on the three scoring dimensions is noteworthy.Whilst the study did not identify any noteworthy primary impact of summarising scaffolding, it did reveal a significant primary impact of textual cues.The conditions of providing a written explanation and a detailed explanation were found to be positively correlated with a higher level of mental model, indicating a favourable outcome.Despite the absence of a noteworthy interaction effect between textual cues and summarising strategy, the mental model scores can still provide valuable insights.Post hoc independent sample t-tests were performed to analyse the mental model scores across the four conditions.Positive developments occurred.The individuals who were assigned to the D4 group, which involved the use of textual cues and summarising scaffolding, attained the most elevated scores in mental model comprehension, written explanation, drawing explanation, and detail explanation.The effectiveness of the written explanation was enhanced by the utilisation of both textual cues and summarising scaffolding.This evidence is highly encouraging.The utilisation of textual cues resulted in an enhancement of the score for detailed explanation, regardless of whether the summarising strategy was implemented or not.The consistency of the summarising strategy is noteworthy, as it appears to remain unaffected by the presence or absence of textual cues.The research findings indicate that the utilisation of textual cues and summarising scaffolding had a noteworthy influence on the development of mental models in a drawing task.The utilisation of textual cues has exhibited a favourable influence on the mental model scores, particularly in the written and elaborative exposition.Despite the lack of significant impact observed in the summarising scaffolding, the progress made in comprehending mental models is a positive development.The implementation of textual cues and summarising scaffolding proved to be a highly efficacious approach to enhancing mental model scores.

Performance Measurement of Learning
Here the noteworthy discoveries of the present study that investigated the impact of textual cues and summarising scaffolds on children's acquisition of knowledge regarding the mathematical concepts of area and volume in a virtual reality (VR) setting are showcased.This study utilized a comprehensive methodology to assess learning efficacy, incorporating both pre-existing knowledge and performancebased evaluations.The study employed statistical analyses to examine the impact of two independent variables, namely textual cues and summarising scaffolding, and their interaction on the dependent variables, including total scores, retention, and transfer.This research offers significant perspectives on the variables that influence academic achievement.The test results indicate that there was no statistically significant variation in prior knowledge across the four experimental conditions.The findings from the performance test indicate that the inclusion of textual cues had a noteworthy and favorable effect on overall scores, retention, and transfer and the inclusion of scaffolding summarization demonstrated a noteworthy positive impact on retention.This implies that the inclusion of said elements can result in enhanced educational achievements.Despite the absence of a statistically significant interaction effect between the two strategies, the findings can still provide valuable insights and warrant further investigation into alternative approaches.Notably, an improvement was observed in summarising scaffolding for both conditions.Moreover, the experimental condition incorporating textual cues exhibited greater overall scores, suggesting its efficacy.The study's findings suggest that the students provided with textual cues and summarising scaffolding exhibited the most significant enhancement in retention.Additionally, textual cues were observed to be more effective in facilitating comprehension during virtual reality-based instruction.This implies that learners have the potential to achieve substantial advancements in their comprehension and memory retention of information, given appropriate assistance.The individuals who were provided with textual cues during virtual reality-based instruction demonstrated the most significant level of proficiency in applying their acquired knowledge.The utilization of textual cues was found to have a noteworthy impact on facilitating the transfer of knowledge.The research indicates that the implementation of textual cues and summarising scaffolding can yield a substantial enhancement in children's acquisition of knowledge pertaining to the mathematical concepts of areas and volumes within a virtual reality setting.The utilization of textual cues was observed to impact overall scores, retention, and transfer significantly.Additionally, it was found that summarising scaffolding was particularly advantageous in promoting retention.

Discussions and Conclusion
The present study investigated the potential benefits of two distinct pedagogical approaches, namely textual cues and summarising scaffolding, on students' academic achievement, cognitive load, and mental model within a virtual reality setting.The research findings indicate that the implementation of both textual cues and summarising scaffolding significantly improved the students' academic performance.Furthermore, the study revealed that there was a notable interaction between the two strategies.The statistical analysis has yielded comprehensive findings regarding the effects of these strategies on learning, which we have discussed in the subsequent sub-sections.

Impact of Textual Cues
According to the research findings, the utilisation of textual cues resulted in a noteworthy enhancement of students' performance and mental model.The enhancement indicates that the textual cues effectively captured the learners' focus and facilitated their ability to discern, extract, and retain crucial information from the copious visual and auditory stimuli.Furthermore, the research findings indicate that integrating textual cues within a virtual reality learning setting yielded superior outcomes in learners' transfer test scores.The distinct structure and substance of the textual prompts may account for this phenomenon.The study's findings indicate that incorporating textual cues can be advantageous without inducing additional cognitive load.The present findings are a valuable addition to the existing body of research that has demonstrated the advantages of textual cues in educational settings, whether in two-dimensional or three-dimensional learning environments.The distinctiveness of the study lies in its capacity to extend these discoveries to the captivating domain of virtual reality-based education.The research emphasises the significance of maintaining a consistent pace of visual cues to sustain immersion in the learning process.

Impact of Summarising Scaffolding
According to the research findings, the implementation of summarising scaffolding was found to have a beneficial effect on the students' ability to retain information and develop mental models.Despite the lack of substantial impact on knowledge transfer, this discovery presents a hopeful prospect.The implementation of summarising scaffolding is a beneficial approach that facilitates learners in recollecting and producing summaries of the principal concepts presented in the educational content.This approach effectively allows learners to derive deeper interpretations from the text and enhance their educational achievements.The research findings indicate that the integration of summarising scaffolding within virtual reality learning resources, coupled with the requirement for students to generate three summaries during their learning process, resulted in a noteworthy enhancement of their learning outcomes.This development is highly significant as it lends support to the generative learning theory, which posits that the utilisation of efficacious learning strategies can enhance our capacity for generative learning.Despite the lack of immediate discernible progress in the transfer test, there remains a possibility for future advancement and development.It is plausible that children may enhance their executive functioning abilities and derive advantages from summarising scaffolding with appropriate assistance and direction.Pictorial summaries may be more appropriate for intricate spatial relationships, whereas verbal summaries may be more efficacious for acquiring knowledge based on text.While the impact of scaffolding on knowledge transfer was found to be restricted, it did have a noteworthy influence on retention and mental models.The research emphasises the possibility of discovering efficacious tactics to enhance knowledge transfer and proposes that additional investigation can aid in comprehending how to augment performance in acquiring intricate spatial representational associations.

Impact of the Interaction of Textual Cues and Summarising Scaffolding
The absence of a noteworthy interaction effect between textual cues and summarising scaffolding on learning performance or mental model presents a prospect for additional investigation and potential revelations in subsequent research endeavours.The summarising scaffolding provided a beneficial framework for learners to concentrate on essential concepts and information.The theory of multimedia learning from a cognitive perspective emphasises five distinct phases of cognitive processing, wherein textual cues play a crucial role in aiding learners to identify and select pertinent information during the initial phase.While the application of summarising scaffolding primarily serves to structure information during the third phase, it remains a viable means of facilitating effective knowledge integration.The statement suggests that knowledge integration can be facilitated through appropriate instructional strategy design and the effective utilisation of learners' executive functions.The investigation into the efficacy of textual cues and summarising scaffolding within virtual reality environment is a worthy endeavour.Despite certain limitations, this research provides valuable insights that can contribute to the advancement of our comprehension of these techniques.

Implications for Educators and Instructional Designers
The findings of this research hold significant implications for educators and instructional designers who incorporate virtual reality (VR) technology in their teaching practices.The study's findings indicate that integrating textual cues within virtual reality resources can facilitate the navigation and acquisition of essential knowledge among young students.Instructional designers possess the ability to augment the educational experience by prioritising cues that facilitate student engagement with the pedagogical content, while also directing attention toward immersion.The research findings indicate that the inclusion of textual cues within virtual reality settings resulted in a favourable effect on both learning performance and mental model, while not causing any increase in cognitive load.The implementation of summarising scaffolding within a virtual setting can be a successful strategy for educators to enhance knowledge retention and improve learners' cognitive load.Educators possess the capacity to construct supportive structures that promote the act of summarization among pupils, particularly in the context of knowledge retention and assimilation.The optimal performance in virtual reality-based instruction was observed in the fourth group, which utilised both summarising scaffolding as well as textual cues.The present study underscores the potential benefits of integrating virtual reality technology with pedagogical approaches to enhance educational outcomes.

Limitations of the Study and Future Work
Although this study possesses certain limitations, it nevertheless offers significant insights.Despite the limited sample size, which included only 122 primary school pupils, the findings offer significant insights that can serve as a foundation for future research.The potential for enhancing the representativeness of future research findings can be achieved by incorporating a more extensive and heterogeneous cohort of participants.It is noteworthy to observe that a majority of the participants lacked prior exposure to VR-based education.This implies that the outcomes of the study could have been positively influenced by the novelty and diffusion effects.If other researchers take up the work from here and make use of qualitative approach for collecting more contextsensitive relevant information and pupils' learning experiences, it would strengthen the findings.The current investigation only provide evidence for the impact/effects of the VR-based learning but cannot really say, how and what the pupils perceived their learning from a first-hand perspective.This can be addressed in future research if a more qualitative approach is utilised.Furthermore, based on the preliminary analysis outcomes which suggest favourable reliability and content validity of the measurement instruments for assessing learning outcomes, there is reason to be hopeful about the possibility of additional confirmation of the criteria and construct validity.Subsequent research endeavours shall delve into the effects of visual summaries, given that the present investigation centred on oral summaries.
Moreover, the participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly.Research ethics thus prohibit supporting data to be made publicly available.

Figure
Figure 3. Factors determining the level of cognitive load (Kirschner, 2002).

Figure
Figure 4. Attributes of cognitive load and a framework of cognitive load definitions (Paas et al., 2003).
is the area of a circle with a radius of 5 cm? (Take π = 3swimming pool has a length of 10 meters and a width of 5 meters.What is the pool's area in square metersis the volume of a rectangular prism with length 8 cm, width 6 cm, and height 4 cm? of the following shapes have an area of 25 square units?a) Square with side 5 units b) Rectangle with length 5 units and width 10 units c) Triangle with base 10 units and height 5 units d) Circle with radius 5 units Fill-in-the-blank: Teacher Training and Technical Support: To effectively integrate VR into classroom teaching, teachers need appropriate training to develop and facilitate VR-based lessons.Lack of adequate training and technical support can hinder the seamless integration of VR technology into the curriculum.