Service quality affecting student satisfaction in higher education institutions in Ghana

Abstract Higher education stakeholders have re-strategized to identify the unique competitive causes of comfortability among students’ satisfaction. Student satisfaction has been largely observed in the literature as a significant strategy and competitive factor for higher education providers. This has compelled institutions to implement quality measures to attract and retain both potential and current students. Therefore, this research is to explore the determinants of student satisfaction. Cross-sectional data was generated from a purposive sample of 400 students across higher education institutions in Ghana. The data was analysed using multiple regression. Expectation theory is the theory that unpins this study. The results reveal that administrative services, academic services, and physical evidence are significant components of service quality. The outcomes of the study show there is a positive and significant relationship between satisfaction, academic services, and administrative services; physical evidence influence student satisfaction.


PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Customer satisfaction is critical for the survival of any business.The higher education space in Ghana, Africa and the global stage has become very competitive and therefore student satisfaction can be a differentiator.This research therefore aimed at investigating the various factors that influence student satisfaction in Ghana an emerging market.The results revealed that administrative services, academic services, and physical evidence are significant components of service quality.The outcomes of the study show there is a positive and significant relationship between satisfaction, academic services, and administrative services; physical evidence influence student satisfaction.To improve student satisfaction, the study suggests that efforts must be made to rectify the abysmal nature of the physical evidence and infrastructure that exist across the higher education institutions surveyed as these together directly influence students' evaluation of the overall education delivered by the institution as satisfactory or otherwise favorably.

Introduction
Education is a crucial investment sector for most global economies.This is even more so for emerging regions, who despite a multitude of economic challenges, seek to develop their educational institutions by providing free access and support for specific levels of education (Atuahene & Anthony, 2013).Public and private universities have increased and expanded their activities in target markets across the regions (Bawakyillenuo et al., 2013).Higher education, in particular, has witnessed several global transformations over the last few decades (Vogt & Schaffner, 2016).Global ranking systems and the increased use of social media platforms have forced the educational sector to become more competitive (Ibn-Mohammed et al., 2020;Tan et al., 2016).Higher learning institutions have, thus, had to cope with both domestic and international competition (Sutherland et al., 2019).According to Attard and Holmes (2020), teaching and learning have evolved and now emerged from the nexus of a changing landscape of information and communication technologies to a new approach that comprises teaching and learning online.The advent of COVID-19 has been arguably the most significant challenge that the educational sector has had to face (Qazi et al., 2022).Competition among tertiary institutions has become dire with the advent of COVID-19 (unesco.org, 2022).Thus, higher institutions, especially in emerging economies, should enhance their performance to attract and maintain students through innovative ways.
The pandemic has played a pivotal role in reforming these institutions considerably with minimal face-to-face classroom interactions to virtual (Wood-Harper, 2020).Higher institutions have, thus, had to adopt and embrace an advanced way of modern learning.There have been significant investments in infrastructures and other forms of support services to help attract and retain students (Baik et al., 2019;Schartner, 2015).Consequently, higher education stakeholders have restrategized to identify the unique competitive causes of comfortability among students' satisfaction.Student satisfaction has been largely observed in the literature as a significant strategy and competitive factor for higher education providers.This has compelled institutions to implement quality measures to attract and retain both potential and current students (Ayanbode et al., 2022;Ibrahim et al., 2012;Tan et al., 2016).
Several studies have been carried out on understanding students' satisfaction.Empirical evidence suggests a separation in the literature on elements that define satisfaction (Chavan et al., 2014;Chu et al., 2018).In their view, Tan et al. (2016) and Silva et al. (2017) argued on observable inconsistencies in defining the concept of student satisfaction.Some studies have, however, concentrated on teaching and learning experiences, with few focusing on administrative and support services (Silva et al., 2017;Tan et al., 2016).It is, therefore, essential that arguments be raised about the determinants of student satisfaction (administrative services, academic services, and physical evidence) (Abdullahi & Yusoff, 2019;Arif et al., 2013;Hornstein & Law, 2017).The challenge is that there is little known about the aspects that discuss the satisfaction and general loyalty toward an institution (K.Ali & Khan, 2018;Cham et al., 2020;Grebennikov & Shah, 2013;Silva et al., 2017;Tan et al., 2016).
Further, scholars have researched several other aspects of higher education such as students' perception of quality, students' loyalty, adult students, and conceptual models of satisfaction among students (Allam, 2018;Brown et al., 2018;Caskurlu, 2018;Silva et al., 2017;Tan et al., 2016).Though such studies provide valuable contributions to the literature, relatively, few of them focus specifically on exploring the determinants of service quality to students' satisfaction as the outcome variable (Hussin, 2018;Pima et al., 2018;Tan et al., 2016;Tight, 2019).Pima et al. (2018) examined e-learning and face-to-face learning systems and their implications.They highlighted the need for more studies to focus on exploring the values of the service across education in higher bodies.Similarly, Hussin (2018) called for comprehensive research on the determinants of student satisfaction as key issues in higher learning institutions.Tan et al. (2016) also established that most studies that focus on the quality of studies have been categorised into the learning experience, student experience and student satisfaction.However, relatively scanty studies about the causes of satisfaction and how they influence the retention of students exist (Bates et al., 2019;Sharpe & Benfield, 2005;Tan et al., 2016).The authors advocated that further studies must address this gap within the higher education literature, which this study seeks to address.This proves that there is a need to understand the depth of what constitutes satisfaction among students in institutions of higher knowledge and learning in the developing economy setting.
A further assessment of studies on the quality of advanced learning institutions suggests that most of the empirical studies tend to have inconclusive results (F.Ali et al., 2016;Ammigan & Jones, 2018;Bates et al., 2019;Gruber et al., 2010;Lenton, 2015;Tan et al., 2016;Teeroovengadum et al., 2019).Therefore, Tan et al. (2016) propose that further studies should be conducted to explore and deepen the comprehension of the determinants of students' contentment with their experiences in advanced learning institutions from different and broader learning contexts.The satisfaction of students in advanced learning institutions which has now turned out to be an area of immense importance among emerging economies and institutions in the last decade is not out of place since this path was also chartered by many developed economies years back (Wilkins & Juusola, 2018).The European Union (EU), the World Bank, OECD, UNESCO, the European Universities Association (EUA) and the International Association of Universities (IAU) adopted and continue to use this approach (de Wit & Altbach, 2021).Rensburg et al. (2016) argue that higher institutions in transition economies should look beyond their classrooms and integrate activities that bring about student satisfaction and loyalty if they want to be sustainable.This study is therefore founded on the above gaps in the literature which provided an extrapolated basis to investigate the determinants of students' satisfaction in the Ghanaian higher educational sector.The findings will address the above empirical gaps, resolve the inconclusiveness and offer a better understanding of student retention in the higher education sector.The subsequent sections comprise a review of relevant studies, the development of hypotheses, the conceptual framework, the research design and the methodology.Presentation and analysis of results, theoretical, policy and managerial implications, limitations and areas for further studies are also presented.

Expectation theory
Expectation theory, also referred to as expectancy-disconfirmation, is a common theory regarding consumer pleasure.It was first proposed in 1977 by Oliver and revised in 1988.According to the theory, a client's evaluation of the product or facility leads to contentment.This is completed to a predetermined level of excellence.The customer's predictive expectations are known as predetermined standards, and include three outcomes: positive disconfirmation, zero disconfirmation, and negative disconfirmation.When performance is thought to exceed predetermined expectations, positive disconfirmation occurs, and the customer may be delighted.Zero disconfirmation happens when the consumer is likely to be satisfied and the performance is thought to be exactly in line with expectations.When performance falls short of expectations, customers express their dissatisfaction, which is known as negative disconfirmation (Oliver, 1996).Anticipation and expectation play key roles in customer satisfaction (Oliver, 1980).They describe how consumers make decisions.The model, according to critics, fails to account for the potential impact of consumers' evaluations of the alternative product's performance on product or service evaluation.Further, compared to tangible consumer items that are simple to test out before buying, the usage of expectancies may be less significant for experience services (Yüksel & Yüksel, 2001).

Student satisfaction
Higher learning organizations need to satisfy the essentials and demands of their target market as well as other stakeholders.However, students' needs must remain the priority.Therefore, it is important to satisfy or meet their expectations in aspects like service delivery (Petrusch & Vaccaro, 2019).According to Oliver (1993), satisfaction is pleasurable fulfilment.Different authors (Al-Laymoun et al., 2020;Oliver & Burke, 1999) have defined satisfaction.Each definition with a unique conceptualization but all are directed to the effective management of expectations.Customer satisfaction describes how a customer responds to pleasurable fulfilment (Oliver & Burke, 1999).Drawing on the idea of Abdulkhaliq and Mohammadali (2019), the satisfaction of customers sums up the mental well-being after attaining the desired expectations of a client.Student satisfaction is a complex concept to define.Satisfaction looks at favourable expectations with regards to service delivery offered to customers and in this case students.It is arguably multidimensional and this is anomalously agreed on in student satisfaction literature as well (Teeroovengadum et al., 2019).Despite several contributions made to the concept of satisfaction in general, little is known about student satisfaction.There is a disagreement about how student satisfaction is conceptualized.Amidst this disagreement, it has been established that the satisfaction of students constitutes a temporal approach emanating from the assessment of their educational background (Elliott & Healy, 2001).

Service quality
Service quality is an attitude form when expectations are compared to actual performance and this type of attitude is linked to satisfaction (Cronin & Taylor, 1992).Service quality is recognised as a customer's approach or reaction to a service.Service quality is subjective, however, there are several dimensions to the approach (Latif et al., 2021).This has been on agenda for both researchers and practitioners for decades, nevertheless, in recent decades it has received increased attention (Abdullahi & Yusoff, 2019).Notably, most studies have used the SERVQUAL model in examining the factors that influence students' satisfaction in the traditional setup (L. Pham et al., ;Udo et al., 2011).Customers are the only judges of service quality, according to Berry et al. (1990).Consumers evaluate service by contrasting the actual experience with their expectations (Berry et al., 1990).The research conceptualized the value of service according to Parasuraman et al.'s (1988) model of service quality.This covers five main dimensions: Assurance (competence, courtesy, credibility, and security); Empathy (admission, message, indulgent of the customer); Reliability (the capacity to undertake a guaranteed task efficiently) and Responsiveness (readiness to assist clients, help clients and offer timely service).This model is used in both service and manufacturing firms (Kwarteng & Hui, 2021).Mwiya et al. (2019) identified that these dimensions of service quality significantly affect satisfaction among students.
Service quality is divided into three categories: academic services, administrative services, and physical evidence (Abdullahi & Yusoff, 2019).Administrative services ensure that employees are taken care of, that suppliers are paid, and that enrollments are handled appropriately.While academic services as a dimension refer to all the academic services given by academic staff in teaching and learning to students, it acts as a crucial point of contact for external suppliers and service providers as well as present and prospective students.It entails actions designed to help individuals gain knowledge and abilities in general, laying the groundwork for further knowledge acquisition and application (Steppacher et al., 2021).The tangible aspect of a service offering, however, is represented by the dimension of physical evidence, which includes anything from instructional materials to the aesthetics of structures.These dimensions shape students experience since it assures them about the quality of service (Ennis, 2011).Abdullahi and Yusoff (2019) also admit that academic services, administrative and student services affect service quality which in turn influences the satisfaction of students.

Satisfaction and quality of service
Quality of service is identified as the determinant of contentment (Singh & Jasial, 2021).Service quality has a major effect on the value and perceived knowledge of a university.Notably, several studies have been extensive on service quality and satisfaction (Gargoum, 2019;Singh & Jasial, 2021).There are several theoretical arguments on satisfaction.Pima et al. (2018) argues that the quality of service is critical to the satisfaction of customers and that is further influenced by personal and situational factors like price.Gruber et al. (2010) further support that the quality-ofservice influences students' satisfaction.Others suggest that satisfaction is largely shaped by campus life experiences (Ammigan & Jones, 2018;Chu et al., 2018).Yoo et al. (2012) explored the effects of customer-to-service interaction and revealed that perceived quality of service increases contentment.Arora and Narula (2018) posit that quality of service has a significant influence on client loyalty.Satisfaction, therefore, affects how students will recommend and enrol a particular higher learning institution (Clemes et al., 2013).

Academic services
Academic services are activities that are provided to students for assistance.It covers services provided for a wide range of stakeholders including staff, students, sponsors and others.It oversees and supports the applications, selection, and admission processes of students.It also involves all activities that support the academic endeavour, engaging in activities around research, innovation, learning and teaching as well as areas concerning the experience of students.These include libraries and other student support services (Abdullahi & Yusoff, 2019;Singh & Jasial, 2021).For instance, Jancey and Burns (2013) examined students' expectations of the value of academic contents, university operations and industry links.It was revealed that academic course quality, university services and industry links contribute significantly to satisfaction among students.Arif et al. (2013), M. Ali et al. (2022) and Al Mulhem and Wang (2020) emphasize that both academic service and non-academic services influence the loyalty of students and contribute significantly to the experiences of students.Osman et al. (2018) accentuate that the experiences of students are significantly influenced by the quality of the program.Al-Alak and Alnaser (2012) add that guidance and other support services as well as other extra curriculum activities determine the satisfaction of students.On the other hand, Fernandes, Atuahene and Anthony (2013) found that non-academic services rather lead to satisfaction and influence positively the loyalty of students more than academic services.This study, thus, recommends these hypotheses: H1: Academic service has a positive effect on service quality.H2: Academic service has a positive effect on student satisfaction.

Administrative services
Administrative services are a supporting unit whose goal is to control the financial and economic aspects of the institution.It consists of both academic and non-academic positions whose principal responsibilities include directing the management of one or more departments to ensure the effective and efficient use of resources to further the mission of the institution.This covers registrations, research, innovation, and support.Arif et al. (2013) identify that non-academic services influence both the reliability and satisfaction of students positively.M. Ali et al. (2022) and F. Ali et al. (2016) corroborate that student services including support and administrative services affect student satisfaction positively.Abdulkhaliq and Mohammadali (2019) confirm that administrative services largely affect the extent of students' satisfaction in advanced educational institutions.This demonstrates that administrative service might influence satisfaction.Therefore, this study postulates that: H3: Administrative service positively influence service quality.H4: Administrative service positively influence student satisfaction.Pinheiro et al. (2019) assert that academia is vigorous and thought-provoking due to the keen encounters seen in the sector.These encounters can be identified in both the public and private higher learning institutions.This has forced higher learning institutions to implement strategies that promote students' learning experiences and ensure advanced student satisfaction (Alves & Raposo, 2007).Baik et al. (2019) and Schartner (2015) cite quality student experience, improved academic performance, and improved academic relationships as reasons for higher institutions to develop all aspects of student life.This affirms the need for higher learning education institutions to focus on physical evidence in improving the contentment of their students.Physical evidence is what customers see when interacting with a firm.The presence of physical infrastructure may indicate that students are satisfied with the atmosphere.However, students are usually discontent with insufficient university facilities (Gruber et al., 2010).Facilities are identified as a determinant of satisfaction among students.Physical evidence such as lecture theatres are core infrastructural facilities that students expect to enhance their satisfaction and experiences (Al-Alak & Alnaser, 2012).Others conclude that academic service and infrastructure affect students' satisfaction and loyalty (M.Ali et al., 2022;Arif et al., 2013).Cham et al. (2020) support that university facilities are core to the overall experiences of students.

Physical evidence
It has been suggested that teaching presence is critical to ensuring student satisfaction and experience (Khalid & Quick, 2016).Teaching presence looks at the design, facilitation, course structure and delivery (Caskurlu, 2018).Caskurlu et al. (2020) and Caskurlu (2018) explore how students' satisfaction relates to in-person learning.They indicate that course design, course length, teaching presence and discipline contribute to the learning experience positively.This is because the learning environment and its effective management are crucial (Ayanbode et al., 2022;Grebennikov & Shah, 2013;Hornstein & Law, 2017;Tan et al., 2016).Also, they serve as a vehicle for improving pedagogical approaches since it is the basis for the effective delivery of service in such institutions (Tan et al., 2016).de Wit and Altbach (2021) note that curriculum among others influences both satisfaction and loyalty in education.
According to Rensburg et al. (2016), class size, lecturers, and student peers' interaction, assessment, feedback, curriculum, lifestyle and the university environment affect student satisfaction.Marginson (2006) and F. Ali et al. (2016) have stressed that the lecturers' performance (the process that is involved in the delivery of the services) and the facilities that support these core processes are core to students' satisfaction.It was re-emphasized that course content quality, system quality and service quality are factors that affect students' satisfaction, especially in the e-learning context (Al Mulhem & Wang, 2020).Abdullahi and Yusoff (2019) and Latif et al. (2021) asserted that academic facilities influence service quality and this influences satisfaction.Additionally, the appearance of employees is physical evidence at the service facility (Othman et al., 2021).Therefore, this research proposes that physical evidence has a key determinant of service quality which in turn affects overall student satisfaction.Therefore, the study posits that: H5: In-person evidence positively influence service quality.

H6:
In-person evidence positively influence the student satisfaction.

Conceptual framework
From Figure 1, it can be observed that academic service (measured with assurance, empathy, reliability, responsiveness), administrative service (measured with registration processes, payment process, information circulation, examination procedure) and physical evidence (measured with building design, classroom design, employees' appearance, field for extra curriculum) determines the students' perception of service quality as well as satisfaction of students.

Methodology
This research explored the determinants of student satisfaction and multiple regression was used to analyse the data.

Population and sample characteristics
The research focused on eighty-six (86) public and private higher educational institutions in Ghana (GTEC, 2021).Six (6) universities in the Accra Metropolis of the Greater Accra Region; namely Accra Technical University (25%), Central University (13%), University of Ghana (27%), Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (12%), University of Professional Studies, Accra (UPSA) (18%) and Lancaster University Ghana (5%) institutions were sampled.The above universities were sampled because they have attained phenomenal growth in terms of infrastructure, programs offered and student numbers in the last 10 years (Rensburg et al., 2016).Student respondents were used in this study because they are the highest consumers of educational services (Ng & Forbes, 2009).The objectives of the study made it also appropriate to collect data from students.Subsequently both undergraduate and graduate students were sampled using convenience sampling.
Convenience sampling, a non-probability sampling technique was employed (Etikan et al., 2016) to select five hundred and fifty (550) students to be interviewed from these institutions.Convenience sampling focuses on collecting data from that part of the study population readily available to the researcher.Convenience sampling method is cost efficient and ensures that the research is conducted in the shortest possible time.The use of a sample size of five hundred and fifty in this study is supported by (Comrey & Lee, 1992).Finally, the questionnaires were fully completed by five hundred and two (502) respondents in a period of four months indicating 91% response rate.However, only four hundred (400) responses were valid for the hypothesis testing.

Descriptive statistics
The descriptive results revealed that a significant number of participants constituted males (52%), while 48% were females.The dominant age group of respondents stood at 21-30 years (66%) and below 20 years (27%) which is evident in the nature of advanced higher learning students in Ghana.The majority of respondents were undergraduate students (61%), while about 22% and 17% were diploma and postgraduate students respectively.The surveyed students cut across.The heterogeneity of the sample is reflective of the population of students across higher education institutions in Ghana and is thus deemed suitable to provide data for the study.

Academic Service
Data for the study was sought from students in higher learning institutions in Ghana.Five hundred and fifty (550) students were purposively sampled indicating 91% response rate.Overall, the data was collected from five hundred and two (502) respondents in a period of four months.Nonetheless, four hundred (400) responses were valid for the hypothesis testing.The heterogeneity of the sample is reflective of the population of students across higher education institutions in Ghana and is thus deemed suitable to provide data for the study.

Measures
A questionnaire was used to collect the quantitative data, although secondary data sources were also employed.The use of a quantitative approach follows the reason given by (Awan et al., 2015) that it provides a better information to resolve the research problem.The questionnaire was made up of two sections, A and B. Section A collected the demographic information about the respondents whilst Section B comprised items that were measured on a 5-point Likert scale of 1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree for the research constructs: academic services, physical environment administrative services and satisfaction.
As part of ensuring content validity the researchers thoroughly reviewed literature on the study area and the scale items of the research constructs: academic services, physical environment and administrative services were adapted from (Sureshcander et al., 2002) and student satisfaction by (Hampton, 1993).Academic services were measured with 8 items, physical environment was measured 7 items and administrative services was also measured with 7 items whilst student satisfaction was also measured with 7 items.The items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale of 1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree.The study used a multiple regression analysis to evaluate the interrelationship between the variables of interest.The study adopted a convenience sampling technique (Etikan et al., 2016).
In addition, a pilot testing of the questionnaire was conducted by a group of experts comprising senior faculty members and researchers.Their recommendations were helpful in improving the content and clarity of the questionnaire.Furthermore, a sample of 30 students who were not part of the pilot test checked the questionnaire again.
To reduce non-response bias to the barest minimum the researchers ensured that the survey questionnaire was clear and concise, relevant to the audience and not too lengthy.In addition, an interesting heading was used to capture the respondents' attention and administered at the right time.
The use of a survey questionnaire for data collection in this study permitted the use of statistics to analyse the data, while the interpretation was much easier (Chavan et al., 2014).The study used a multiple regression analysis to evaluate the interrelationship between the variables of interest.The data collection lasted for three months.

Composition of service quality
Evaluating the composition of service quality in higher education institutions, the study run a regression model of the three proposed dimensions-academic services, physical environment, and administrative services.It is argued that educational institutions place a premium on the academic services delivered, the physical infrastructure within which learning and teaching activities occur and the administrative services that support learning and teaching and other student-related activities such as student records, academic records, information dissemination etc.This is presented in Table 1.
Table 1 illustrates that, academic services (β = 0.412, significance = 0.000, p-value ≤ 0.001), physical environment (β = 0.408, significance = 0.000, p-value ≤ 0.001) and administrative services (β = 0.386, significance = 0.000, p-value ≤ 0.001) are all significant components of service quality in higher educational institutions surveyed.It is evident that the higher educational institutions place more emphasis on academic services delivered, followed by physical infrastructure then administrative services in order of priority.Notwithstanding, all three dimensions of service quality are positively significant in the higher educational institutions surveyed.This implies that, for these educational institutions, students place a premium on academic services through academic programmes, competence, faculty support, curriculum content and relevance, and teaching methods.The student is particular about the physical evidence within which the learning and teaching occur.Infrastructure, the extent to which architectural design is appealing, adequacy of computing facilities, conduciveness of lecture halls, library facilities and professionalism exhibited by the staff.In terms of administrative services, the student is concerned about the courtesy of staff, and responsiveness to queries among others.
3.4.1.1.Service Quality and Student Satisfaction.This was followed by an analysis to examine the effect of overall service quality on the satisfaction of students as presented in Table 2.The results in Table 2 suggest that service quality accounts for about 58% (R Square = 0.579) of the variance in student satisfaction.This variance only reduces slightly (Adjusted R Square = 0.578) when adjusted for degrees of freedom.This implies that a high percentage of student satisfaction is due to overall service quality delivered by the higher educational institutions in Ghana surveyed.From Table 2, the results of model fit (F Change = 548.815,significance = 0.000, p-value ≤ 0.001) imply that the regression model accommodates the population reasonably.The results in Table 2 show that the relationship between overall service quality (B = 0.278, significance = 0.000, p-value ≤ 0.001) and student satisfaction is moderate and significantly positive.This means that a unit increase in service quality increases student satisfaction by 0.278 points positively.

Service quality components and student satisfaction
Finally, to further assess the respective contribution of each dimension of service quality on students' satisfaction, the regression analysis was conducted for composite service quality dimensions.The results in Table 3 suggest that service quality accounts for about 70% (R Square = 0.709) of the variance in student satisfaction.This variance only reduces slightly (Adjusted R Square = 0.907) when adjusted for degrees of freedom.This implies that a high percentage of student satisfaction is due to composite service quality delivered by the higher educational institutions in Ghana surveyed.As shown in Table 4, the results of model fit (F Change = 322.167,significance = 0.000, p-value ≤ 0.001) imply that the regression model fits the population rationally.
In Table 4, the results show that the relationship between academic services (B = 0.307, significance = 0.000, p-value ≤ 0.001) and student satisfaction is moderate and significantly positive.This means that a unit increase in academic services delivered increases students' satisfaction by 0.307 points positively.Similarly, the results in Table 5 show that the relationship between administrative services (B = 0.646, significance = 0.000, p-value ≤ 0.001) and student satisfaction is moderate and significantly positive.This means that a unit increase in administrative services delivered increases student satisfaction by 0.646 points positively.
However, the results in Table 5 show that the relationship between physical evidence or environment (B = −0.052,significance = 0.103, non-significant, p-value > 0.05) and student satisfaction is weak but statistically non-significant and negative.This means that physical evidence in the presence of academic and administrative services rather detracts from student satisfaction.In other words, the academic services and administrative services provided in the institutions surveyed are sufficient to positively impact student satisfaction.However, the physical infrastructure and evidence at the institutions rather reduce student satisfaction, although not significantly (See   Table 6 for details).Since the impact of PHYSICAL_EVID (physical evidence) is statistically nonsignificant, it was excluded from the regression equation.This implies that student satisfaction in the advanced learning institutions surveyed depends on the quality of the academic and administrative services provided by the institutions.

Discussion of findings
The study aimed at making an important contribution by testing the effect of service quality and student satisfaction.First, it was revealed that administrative service, academic service and physical evidence are significant components of service quality delivered by higher education institutions to attain student satisfaction.This shows that satisfaction of students goes beyond the lecture hall experience.It includes the kind of experience students get when they network with administrative staff.Previous studies (M.Ali et al., 2022Ali et al., , 2022;;Fernandes et al., 2013) have confirmed the relationship between satisfaction and academic and administrative services.
The analysis reveals that the overall quality of service is a major determinant of establishing and sustaining the interest of students in advanced learning institutions in Ghana.This can be achieved by focusing on the general experience of students.This affirms earlier works (Abdullahi & Yusoff, 2019;M. Ali et al., 2022) that established that the service quality influences student satisfaction positively.
The study finds that academic service (B = 0.307, p ≤ 0.001) and administrative service (B = 0.646, p ≤ 0.001) contribute significantly positively to attaining student satisfaction.Hence, the quality of academic and administrative services delivered has significant positive impacts on students experience and directly affects how students assess the educational institution (Al-Alak & Alnaser, 2012).This confirms previous studies such as Arif et al. (2013), M. Ali et al. (2022), Arif et al. (2013) and Abdulkhaliq and Mohammadali (2019).
Finally, the results suggest that physical evidence (B = −0.052,non-significant, p-value >0.05) reduces student satisfaction across higher education institutions surveyed.This is contrary to assertions that physical infrastructure contributes immensely to the satisfaction of students.Perhaps, the physical evidence does not meet the expectations of students leading to student dissatisfaction concerning service quality levels.Studies such as F. Ali et al. (2016), Arif et al. (2013) and M. Ali et al. (2022) affirm this relationship.

Theoretical implications
This study contributes theoretically toward service quality and student satisfaction since most of the studies on service quality and student satisfaction are based on construct-based models rather than a theory (Arif et al., 2013;Gruber et al., 2010;Yoo et al., 2012).The research contributes theoretically toward service quality and student satisfaction in the education sector by using expectation theory to effectively comprehend satisfaction in the domain of the services, particularly in higher learning educational institutions in emerging markets.The novelty of the research is grounded on the assertion that the study tested the relationship between student consumer market and advanced learning institutions.This research also emphasized the importance of service quality as one important function of service marketing and satisfied customers.This explains the determinants and influence of customer satisfaction and the manner of evaluating and enhancing both ideas.
This study confirms the underlying assumptions of the expectancy theory.First, it affirms that a student's evaluation of the services-academic service, administrative service and the physical evidence provided by the higher learning institution makes them content.Second, students have predetermined standards thus, they expect a certain level of academic service, administrative service and physical evidence offered by the institution.Hence, the result shows that the expectation of students on both academic service and administrative services aligned with the academic and administrative services they received.This implies that they were satisfied since their expectations are a function of satisfaction.Third, the results reveal that there was a negative disconfirmation when it comes to physical evidence as a determinant of student satisfaction.This implies that physical evidence does not necessarily improve student satisfaction.According to the premises of expectation theory, however, the absence of tangible evidence influences students' overall experience because they may believe that it is essential to ensure effective schooling in the context of higher education.This research contributes to the literature on service quality at higher education institution as the results could help improve the effective delivery of client service and how it connects with student satisfaction in advanced learning institutions.

Policy and managerial implications
Research on the relationship that exists between the student consumer market and advanced learning institutions has increased.Several studies have highlighted the advantages of service quality as a key component in service marketing and satisfied customers.This indicates achieving and influencing customer satisfaction, its relationship with service quality and evaluating and enhancing both concepts.However, there exists a gap in this area of study when it comes to service quality in education, especially emphasizing students as customers.This study set out to address this gap by exploring student satisfaction at advanced educational institutions.It adds to the research stream on service quality at the higher education institution as the results could help improve the understanding of client service delivery and how it connects with student satisfaction in an advanced educational institution.It has been proven that in making efforts to achieve student satisfaction, a holistic approach must be adopted by institutions, combining students' experiences in their academic and non-academic lives (Singh & Jasial, 2021).Management of higher education institutions should integrate all three dimensions of student satisfaction (academic services, administrative service and physical evidence) and build strategies to facilitate student satisfaction.To improve student satisfaction, the study suggests that efforts must be made to rectify the abysmal nature of the physical evidence and infrastructure that exist across the higher education institutions surveyed as these together directly influence students' evaluation of the overall education delivered by the institution as satisfactory or otherwise favourably.This should be a deliberate attempt from authorities of higher education institutions to help enhance student satisfaction (Al-Alak & Alnaser, 2012 Higher education institutions must take steps to deliver high-quality academic service to significantly generate student satisfaction.The academic services of interest include delivery of quality education, competence in teaching, experience in academic research, relevant curriculum for the job market, support from faculty, the use of effective teaching methods, accurate evaluation and relevant assessments and provision of a conducive learning environment.This will help increase the numbers of potential and actual students due to the increased positive oral feedback that will be spread by the students.To adhere to best industry practises higher education institutions should improve administrative service by updating staff expertise regularly and investing in technology which offers convenience to students.Speed in delivery and staff competence is key to offering student satisfaction.These administrative services include responsiveness of university staff to student queries, courtesy, and professionalism of the staff, support, and willingness to help students, effective communication with students, maintaining error-free records, having students' best interests at heart, and informing students of the university calendar promptly.This will improve student attraction and retention in universities.Policymakers and management of higher education institutions should ensure staff attending to students' queries are trained to be responsive, courteous, and professional in their attempt to address student grievances at all touch points.Authorities must ensure student queries are owned by the recipients who see to the final resolution.
Institutions must improve the following aspects of their physical evidence: architectural design, websites, lecture halls, computers, appearance of employees, social environment, and library facility.Authorities must invest in these facilities even though the findings prove it does not necessarily enhance satisfaction.However, based on the expectancy theory axioms, if physical evidence is absent, it will affect the overall experience of the student since this is core to ensuring effective teaching and learning at advanced educational institutions.Boards of advanced educational institutions should invest in state-of-the-art facilities; lecture halls, libraries and other facilities that would provide extra curriculum activities.This will help retain and attract new students.
The government should support this agenda in higher education institutions in attracting both local and international students to enhance quality education and the reputation of such institutions globally.Policymakers should prescribe a code of dress and appearance for both administrative and teaching staff to help improve the overall outlook of the institution.Further, policymakers should monitor the activities of librarians to ensure the effective management of both digital and manual materials to support the academic work of students.There should be a well-drafted policy on maintenance of the institutions' facilities to help maintain their quality and preserve them to avoid waste of resources in such institutions.Higher education institutions can outsource cleaning and other facility management services to third parties, if need be, to maintain high service quality among students to ensure better physical evidence.
Emerging economies are noted to contribute a very high number of professionals across many developed countries.About 39% of skilled labour in America is known to have come from BRICS nations.Similarly, 15% of skilled professionals in Europe can be linked to having migrated from emerging economies (K.Ali & Khan, 2018).As such, higher institutions in these countries should leverage these numbers to increase their revenue not for just themselves but also their economies.Chattopadhyay et al. (2022), posit that out of the more than 260 million student population across the globe, 20000 can be found in higher institutions only (Rensburg et al., 2016).This presupposes that there is more room for improvement, especially at the level of admission rate among BRICS nations (China 35%-40%, Latin America 50%, India 20%-25% and while that of Africa is less than 15%) (Rensburg et al., 2016).

Limitations and future research
The study encountered some limitations.However, they do not impact the potential contribution this research makes towards understanding how service quality influences student satisfaction.First, the study employed cross-sectional data.Further studies could investigate such a relationship via a longitudinal approach.The research approach employed was quantitative.Future studies could, therefore, employ a mixed research approach to complement the weaknesses of the quantitative research approach.The study is based on a single country study which makes generalizability a difficult task.Further studies should adopt a multi-country analysis for a better understanding of the constructs being examined.Further studies should consider introducing mediators or moderators and control variables.