Mind the conflict: Empathy when coping with conflicts in the education sphere

Abstract Recent studies show that conflict situations are a quite frequent reality in schools. These conflict occurrences can be attributed, among other things, to the lack of conflict resolution skills among school personnel. This paper presents a mixed methods study aimed to evaluate the effect of the “Mind the Conflict” intervention model on novice teachers’ self-awareness and sense of efficacy in conflict situations, as well as their ability to express empathy toward the “other” in the conflict. The study sample comprised 61 teachers, aged 25–55, most of them females, drawn from primary public schools across Israel. Forty-two teachers were trained in the model as part of an Induction into Teaching course (experimental group). Nineteen teachers who took an unrelated course constituted the control group. Data sources included pre-post questionnaires administered to both groups, and final papers gathered from the experimental group. Results showed that at the end of the course, teachers exposed to the model reported significantly higher empathy levels in conflict situations, and that this ability was a significant predictor of their sense of efficacy in these situations. These findings were supported by data from the qualitative analysis. Possible contributions stemming from the use of the model for novice teachers are discussed.


PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers would benefit from having the skills to manage conflicts in a constructive manner. This paper presents a field study that evaluated the effects of "Mind the Conflict", a training model integrating conflict transformation and mindfulness approaches and tools. The research investigated whether novice teachers training in the model would develop more awareness of their attitudes, feelings, and behaviors in conflict situations; would have an increased sense of empathy toward the "other" side in conflicts; and would feel more capable to cope with such situations. The results showed that developing a sense of empathy toward the other side can contribute to an increased sense of self-efficacy in handling conflicts. The teachers developed a new perspective concerning conflicts, acquired reflective and practical tools, and assimilated changes in different aspects of their lives. The implications are relevant for schools and workplaces in general.

Introduction
Conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively (Valente et al., 2020). Researchers who explored teacher-student conflictual interactions, highlighted teachers' difficulties in conflict management and negative teacher-student interactions as playing a key role in determining a large number of education-related outcomes for both teachers and students (Zurlo et al., 2020).
In response, researchers and field practitioners from the disciplines of conflict resolution and of education, and recently from social and emotional learning (Durlak et al., 2015), have invested significant efforts in developing theories and practices to enable beneficial engagement with social situations in general, and charged situations in particular. Likewise, recent studies point to the benefits of teachers' emotional intelligence abilities as a valuable means of managing conflict in the classroom (Valente & Lourenço, 2020a, 2020b. Moreover, in some cases, policymakers have encouraged and promoted conflict resolution training programs for teachers and/or students, especially in the U.S. (Jones, 2004).
Empathy, along with communication skills, are some of the soft skills desired from an employee (Nigh, 2021). Through the processes of globalization and migration, the OECD (2017) claims that an active-learning approach is necessary for both in-service training and professional development of teachers. It aims to confront them with different situations, helping them gain consciousness of their own attitudes and values, and giving them the tools to be able to manage conflict and diverse opinions. This could help them develop a sense of awareness of, and empathy toward, their students as well as the capacity to act upon such awareness.
In accordance with these efforts, the "Mind the Conflict" (MtC) intervention model offers a distinct approach that combines mindfulness with conflict transformation tools, as a positive approach. This differs from "conflict resolution" (assuming that conflict is negative and should be resolved and ended without addressing the underlying causes of conflict) and "conflict management" (conflict is complex and can never be resolved entirely, see Nthontho, 2020). The model aims to enable learners to develop a heightened non-jugdmental awareness of their own functioning in conflict situations, to overcome the empathic failure that characterizes conflict situations (Galinsky et al., 2005;Mashuri et al., 2013), and to feel more capable of understanding and engaging with these kinds of situations.
Mindfulness is an "awareness that arises through paying attention, on purpose, in the present moment, non-judgementally" (Kabat-Zinn, 2016, p. 1482. Combining theories and practices of mindfulness with those of conflict transformation can help participants make the transition from automatic reactions and behaviors in situations of disagreement and conflict to conscious processes of reflection, decision-making, and constructive action. The current novel study examines the effectiveness of integrating these two arenas in a field setting, which to the best of our knowledge has not been studied before. In addition, this is an exploratory research in the sense that it measures mindfulness and self-efficacy of subjects in relation to real life workplace conflict situations. The MtC model was implemented in a group of novice teachers as part of teachertraining programs in their induction phase, compared to a control group that did not receive the intervention model. Particularly, the study examined whether those exposed to MtC would: (a) be more aware of the way they acted in conflict situations; (b) demonstrate higher levels of empathy toward the "other" with whom they disagreed, and (c) develop a sense of efficacy in engaging with conflicts that they experienced both in and out of the classroom.

Conflicts in the education sphere
Studies that have reviewed the education systems in Israel and in other countries note that conflicts, disagreements, and disputes in schools are inevitable (e.g., Valente & Lourenço, 2020a, 2020bWeinberger & Bakshy, 2015). Moreover, these studies suggest that the education sphere is, by its very definition, a conflictual space where many conflicts exist simultaneously (Fields, 1998). Previous studies show that during the 1990s, several different trends occurred that led to increased conflicts in education systems, including the formation of a multicultural society, the establishment of the perception that schools are part of the community, and the consequent growth of parental involvement in schools, which necessitates collaboration. The latter generated various conflicts and in parallel, there was a sharp rise in reports concerning violence and bullying in schools. According to the research, teachers are increasingly exposed to interpersonal conflicts with the parties involved in schools: other teachers, school management, and parents (Martinez, 2005). Teachers also contend almost daily with students who do not fully comply with school regulations and rules and as a result, power struggles may erupt between teachers and students in the classroom engendering perceptions of "winners" and "losers" (Hamre et al., 2008). All these contribute to the high levels of stress experienced by teachers (Herman et al., 2020).
Since a teacher's tolerance and conflictological competence are considered by modern scientists as necessary conditions for successful professional activity (Savina et al., 2020;Hoffmann et al., 2020), recent decades have seen the evolution of theories and practices that attempt to provide a response to this complex reality. These are part of an approach, known as "conflict resolution education" (CRE), studied in thousands of schools in the U.S. (Daunic et al., 2000;Garrard & Lipsey, 2007). This approach views conflicts as part of solutions and as an opportunity for growth and positive change (Čiuladienė & Boboc, 2020;Valente & Lourenço, 2020a). Additionally, it considers the ability to resolve conflicts in a constructive manner as a life skill essential for enhancing the quality of school life, teaching, and learning (Jones, 2004). The main purpose of the programs developed in the spirit of this approach is to encourage a constructive solution for interpersonal conflict while attempting to reduce the level of violence in schools and promote effective coping with classroom disturbances (Doğan, 2016). A secondary goal is to foster pro-social behaviors, such as cooperation, empathy, use of respectful language and prevent aggression and bullying. These programs provide students as well as teachers with a basic understanding of the nature of conflict and of the dynamics of power relations that influence conflict, and enable them to use alternative and positive ways to solve conflict (Jones, 2004).
The MtC model was designed to follow the CRE approach and focuses on training teachers as "those who resolve disagreements" and on enhancing their ability to engage with conflict situations. Based on the known inverse relationship between emotional involvement, sensitivity, the ability to empathize and the proneness to conflict (e.g., Savina et al., 2020), the MtC model adds several unique dimensions with the aim of raising teacher understanding and capabilities. Some of these elements are developing mindfulness concerning one's experience in situations of conflict as well as enhancing empathy and expressions of empathy toward the "other" in the conflict.

Mindfulness in education and the study of conflict
Mindfulness is a concept derived from Buddhist tradition and usually relates to attending to one's present experiences in a non-judgmental or accepting manner (Kabat-Zinn, 2016). Mindfulness improves the individual's ability to witness their thoughts and feelings without reacting to them in an impulsive and destructive manner (Boorstein, 1996). Research reveals that mindfulness has many positive influences that can be relevant in dealing with conflict, such as the development of tolerance and flexibility (Davis & Hayes, 2011), and the ability to relate to others in a compassionate manner (Fulton, 2005).
Mindfulness has been linked to better relationship quality. Study among teachers (Becker et al., 2017) showed that higher levels of tendency to be mindful in daily life (according to the four common components of mindfulness: attention, present-focus, awareness, and acceptance), were associated with higher quality relationships with children (less conflict and greater closeness). The researchers concluded that these findings imply that instruction in mindfulness-based practices could be offered as part of pre-service teacher training and ongoing professional development.
Mindfulness-based intervention programs were introduced into education systems worldwide in recent decades. Research investigating the effectiveness of such programs for teachers and students indicate that mindfulness practice may reduce teacher stress and burnout, improve their coping ability with work pressures, increase their self-compassion, and improve the classroom atmosphere (Flook et al., 2013;Tarrasch, 2015). Practice of mindfulness and compassion coupled with socialemotional skills has a significant effect on teachers' well-being and therefore may be instrumental in reducing stress among educators (Tarrasch et al., 2020). Beyond teachers, studies on programs for children and youth found that practicing mindfulness led to an improvement in cognition, mental health, and interpersonal relations (e.g., Carsley & Heath, 2019;Zenner et al., 2014).
In light of these findings, it would appear that mindfulness can help foster attributes, emotional tendencies, and perceptions that encourage more effective and positive behaviors in conflict situations, as well as contribute to the development of empathy.

Empathy in conflict research and education
Most contemporary approaches agree that empathy is composed of two main components defined as "affective empathy" and "cognitive empathy." The emotional aspect of empathy relates to involving the individual's emotional reaction to a situation or to the feelings of another individual and their sense that they share an inner experience with that individual. The cognitive aspect of empathy, also known as "perspective taking," can be described as a cognitive act in which the individual places themselves in another's place and tries to imagine their thoughts and feelings (Baron-Cohen, 2009). These two characteristics are linked with a third, known as "empathic concern". This relates to the motivation to act to reduce the suffering of the "other," which is often translated into behavior to assist others (Zaki & Ochsner, 2012).
Research addresses the role of empathy in conflict resolution processes and focuses on investigating the influences of empathy in social situations, on identifying ways to increase and encourage empathy, and on identifying factors that lead to a lack of empathy. For example, there is evidence of pro-social benefits, such as reducing perceived dissimilarity and enxiety concerning the other person and the other group, reducing cognitive dissonance, reducing prejudice and bias, and increasing the will to help, stemming from empathy both at the individual level (Stephan & Finlay, 1999) and in group relations (Dovidio et al., 2010). While many studies describe the contribution of empathy to conflict resolution processes, there are quite a few relating to "empathic failure," suggesting that the ability to feel empathy is not necessarily applied automatically in all situations of conflict and that many "limitations," such as perceived status, perception of victimhood, competition, etc. prevent empathy from being expressed or translated into action in conflict situations (Mashuri et al., 2013;Vorauer & Sasaki, 2009;Zaki & Cikara, 2015). Empathic failure occurs in interpersonal as well as in intergroup conflicts.
In the education sphere, empathy is seen as a global competence (Kerkhoff & Cloud, 2020), and a fundamental requirement for teachers, as it enables them to understand the feelings of others, assess them, and respond to their motivational needs (Weinberger & Bakshy, 2015). This is essential for increasing their sense of self-worth and the value they attribute to others (Cooper, 2011). Teachers' empathy toward their students can lead to improved experiences for the students, reinforce good relations in the classroom and increase their motivation to learn, which in turn, helps both students and teachers develop a positive approach toward themselves and toward the system (Barr & Higgins-D'Alessandro, 2007;Lampert, 2008;Tettegah & Anderson, 2007).
Studies have consistently found that preservice teacher education programs pay little attention to giving teachers the knowledge and skills they need to promote their students' social and emotional competence, competencies that are required for coping with today's reality, such as the COVID-19 crisis (Hadar et al., 2020).

Teachers' sense of efficacy to cope with conflict situations
Many scholars describe the challenges novice teachers face when they enter the teaching profession and the professional and emotional demands of their induction as a reality shock (Korhonen et al., 2017). As a result of these challenges, teacher attrition is a troubling phenomenon around the world, with many teachers dropping out during their first years of teaching (e.g., Ingersoll & Strong, 2011;Yinon & Orland-Barak, 2017). One factor that has been shown to impact teacher well-being and retention is their self-efficacy (Zee & Koomen, 2016).
A teacher's sense of self-efficacy is generally considered their subjective perception of their ability to fulfil professional assignments relating to their students and the classroom, and to their professional colleagues and school management (Bandura, 1997;Friedman & Kass, 2002). In turn, the inner evaluations and outer feedback that teachers receive regarding their performance provide the basis for their sense of self-efficacy (Kaniel, 2013). Self-efficacy is an important component of teachers' identity that influences their behavior and student outcomes (Kelley et al., 2020). In addition, it was found that teacher self-efficacy predicts empathy among teachers (Hen, 2010). In another study it was found that the higher teachers rank on teacher self-efficacy as well as emotional self-efficacy, the higher they rank on empathy (Hen et al., 2016). Self-efficacy also has been shown to positively contribute to their proactive approaches to managing studentteacher conflict (Zee & Koomen, 2016). On the other hand, teachers who cannot overcome conflict situations are confronted with a crucial time-wasting problem that hinders their instruction capabilities (Argon, 2014).
Since novice teachers experience a diminution in their sense of self-efficacy during their first year in teaching (Korhonen et al., 2017;Sydnor, 2017), professional development must support and reinforce the growth in self-efficacy (Catalano et al., 2020;Kearney, 2017). To respond to this challenge, the MtC model was applied as a conflict transformation intervention model for teachers in general, and for novice teachers in particular, out of a desire to help them deal with some of the difficulties they encounter as teachers at the inception of their careers.

MtC and its implementation in the education system
Studies that evaluated conflict resolution programs in education systems indicated that in order to achieve the programs' goals, it was necessary not only to train students, but also teachers (Čiuladienė & Boboc, 2020). The challenge in working with the teachers is to get them to change their perceptions and behaviors. According to Kaniel (2013), the empathic process is spiritually and mentally difficult to perform, especially in conflict situations, and requires a significant investment of time. He points out the connection between self-awareness and empathy and states that in order to develop empathy in education settings, particularly in conflict situations, educators should not only enter into the world of others but their own personal world as well. This is important since, "insofar as a person listens better to his inner voice, then he will be better able to hear the voice of others" (p. 25).
In line with this, the MtC model teaches participants to abandon automatic reactions to conflict and disagreement, which usually lead to escalation and an increase in violence. Instead, participants learn to adopt mindful engagement leading to the formation of empathy and understandings, improvement of relationships, and finding constructive solutions.

Study context
The MtC model was implemented as part of an annual Induction into Teaching course given by one of the leading education colleges in Israel. The course is required for new education employees in their second year of teaching. Its aim is to help teachers' transitioning from "intern" to the status of "novice teacher," to reinforce their professional efficacy, to reduce dropout rates from the profession, and to construct a perception of their role and consolidate their professional identity (Israel Ministry of Education, 2014).
The course includes ten three-hour consecutive weekly workshops, delivered by the two developers of the model. The sessions comprise theoretical and experiential learning including mindfulness-informed activities (Shapiro & Carlson, 2017), case studies from participants' professional lives, participatory exercises, learning of practical pedagogic tools, discussions, and simulations.
The current study aimed to empirically explore the MtC model's effectiveness and to examine its contribution to novice teachers in their induction into the education system. The research employed a pretest-posttest design with experimental and control groups. It was constructed as a quasi-experimental evaluation study, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods. By using mixed methods, we tried to provide a more holistic perspective and to enrich and improve the understanding of the matters under study.
The research questions were: 1) Compared to the control group, did the teachers in the experimental group experience changes as a result of their training in the MtC model with regard to the following three variables: (a) The extent of their awareness concerning their engagement with conflict situations (mindfulness in conflict); (b) Their level of empathy expressed toward the "other" with whom there was a disagreement; (c) Their sense of efficacy to engage with conflicts in the education sphere; and 2) Is it possible to predict the sense of efficacy to engage with conflicts in the education sphere with the help of the two other research variables (mindfulness in conflict and empathy), and would the ability to predict be higher in the experimental group than in the control group?

Participants
The participants were a convenience sample of 61 teachers (90.2% females, 9.8% males) employed at various public school levels (75.0% primary, 12.5% middle school, 10.7% high schools, 1.8% kindergarten). Their ages ranged from 25 to 55 years (M = 32.14, SD = 6.98). Most of them hold a BA or a B. Ed degree (80.3%), and close to 20% have an MA degree. All of them were in their second year of teaching, and were taking Induction into Teaching courses during the 2016-2017 academic year. The courses were held at a leading teachers' college in Israel, which aims to build support mechanisms for novice teachers during their induction into the education system. The teachers were recruited non-randomly from these courses.
The experimental group included 42 teachers who learnt the MtC model as part of a course entitled, "Beyond Dispute: Wholesome Conflict Engagement in the Education Sphere" (20 from one class and 22 from a parallel class). Most of the subjects in this group were female (92.9%) and 7.1% were male, the mean age was 32.85 (SD = 7.59). As for the academic degree, 83.3% of them hold a BA degree or a B. Ed degree.
The control group included 19 teachers with similar background characteristics from two classes of a course entitled,"Workshop Accompanying Teachers and Kindergarten Teachers during Induction into Teaching" (9 from one class and 10 from a parallel class). About eighty-four percent of them were female and 15.8% were male, the mean age was 30.5 (SD = 5.18). Most of them (73.7%) hold a BA degree or a B. Ed degree.

Quantitative measures
The quantitative component employed a questionnaire developed on the basis of existing, validated self-report questionnaires. The questionnaire was adapted for the purposes of the present study, especially in light of the need to anchor the questions in the context of classroom conflicts. This questionnaire was administered to all the research subjects.
The questionnaire was composed of several indices, as detailed below:

Index of mindfulness in conflict
This 13-item index is based on two existing questionnaires: The Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scales (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) and the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (Tennant et al., 2007), rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). For example: "I was intolerant of anything that kept me from getting on with what I was doing." Internal reliability for the index yielded Cronbach's α = .88 in the pre-test and α = .84 in the post-test.

Empathy index
This eight-item questionnaire included seven items examining the cognitive aspect of empathy based on the cognitive component in the empathy questionnaire devised by Davis (1983). Participants rated items on a perspective-taking scale, which measured the tendency to spontaneously adopt the psychological point of view of others, on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 -"strongly disagree" to 5-"strongly agree. For example: "Before criticizing somebody, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place." Reliability of this index was Cronbach's α = .70, in both the pre-and post-tests. One item on the questionnaire targeted the emotional aspect of empathy and was measured by grading the extent of participants' agreement with the statement: "When I am engaged in a conflict, I want to feel empathy toward the person who is in conflict with me." This question is based on studies investigating empathy in conflictual relations between groups and individuals (e.g., Porat et al., 2016).

Index of self-efficacy to engage in conflict in the classroom
This questionnaire includes 10 items derived from the "teaching tasks" factor in the "Teacher's Sense of Self-efficacy" questionnaire (Friedman & Kass, 2002). The questions concerning this factor relate to the professional task aspect of the teacher's role, while focusing on the way in which they behave in conflict situations. For example: "I think that through my engagement with conflicts in the classroom, I create a positive change in my students' lives." Agreement to the items was rated between 1-"strongly disagree" to 5-"strongly agree". Reliability was Cronbach's α = .88 in both the pre-and post-tests.
In all parts of the questionnaire, the negatively worded items were reverse scored, such that a higher numeric value attested to a more positive attitude. In addition to these indices, the questionnaire included an examination of background demographics and professional variables such as gender, family status, education, and others.

Qualitative measure
At the end of the course the teachers in the experimental group were asked to write final papers based on their practical experience with tools they had acquired in the course. The papers included the following sections: (a) a description of a conflict situation in an education setting in which the teacher used a range of tools acquired in the course for wholesome engagement with conflicts; (b) the rationale for using the selected tools in the specific situation; (c) reflection on the teacher's own functioning in the situation, and (d) reflection on the course as a whole.

Procedure
The conventional ethical and deontological procedures were followed. The ethics committee at the college approved the study, and all subject data were collected anonymously and confidentially. Subjects chose voluntarily to take one of the two Induction into Teaching courses. At the first session of each of the courses a verbal informed consent was obtained from them. They were informed about the research objective, and then chose whether to participate in the research. This procedure has proven satisfactory and followed the ethical practices of the time.
The questionnaires completed by subjects from the experimental and control groups were administered in class, by the first author of this article, who was not one of the course lecturers/authors. The questionnaires were administered in groups of 21-26 teachers, between October 2016 and May 2017. Pre-tests were administered at the beginning of the courses and post-tests at the end of the courses. Subjects who were not present in the sessions when the questionnaires were administered completed the questionnaires online. The final papers written by subjects in the experimental group were submitted a month after the end of the course. The average response rate for the questionnaire was approximately 65%, obtained from both groups' members.

Data analysis
The research included only those teachers who responded to both the pre-and post-questionnaires. Since dropout was not evident in both groups, we didn't identify a problem of missing data that can lead to biased results.
The quantitative data analysis was done using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and multiple regression. The qualitative data was done through content analysis. The thematic analysis was conducted in two stages. First, one of the course lecturers/authors of this article read the anonymous final papers of the 42 teachers in the experimental group and identified 30 subcategories of direct quotes that referred to situation descriptions and analyses. Then, several discussions were held with the second course lecturer/author to discuss the sub-categories, pool them into main categories and sort the direct quotes from the papers into each category.

Results
In order to have confidence that any observed differences in the dependent variables result from the implementation of the MtC intervention model, we have checked whether both groups are the same at the baseline stage to be comparable.
In this examination, no significant differences were found with respect to age (t = −1.20, p > 0.05). A chi-square test (χ 2 ) conducted regarding the remaining variables revealed no significant differences (p > 0.05) for gender, family status, children, present workplace, education, present role in school and scope of position. Only one significant difference was found, with the school sector ðχ 2 ¼ 5:185; df ¼ 1; p<:05Þ: One hundred percent of subjects in the experimental group were teaching in the general education sector whereas 87.5% of the control group was teaching in this sector.
The results of each research question are presented by integrating the quantitative and the qualitative components.

Quantitative results of changes in teachers' level of mindfulness, empathy, and efficacy in conflicts
The first research question compared the subjects in the experimental group with those in the control group in terms of the three main research variables: teachers' awareness (mindfulness) of their conduct in conflict situations, sense of empathy toward the "other" in those situations, and sense of efficacy in engaging with conflicts.
To address this question, two quantitative comparisons were made. First, the mean results of the pre-test on the research variables for the experimental and control groups were compared to ensure that no initial differences existed between the groups before commencing the intervention. Second, mean results on the post-test measures were compared between the experimental and control groups in order to examine the efficacy of the intervention. Table 1 displays the results of the comparisons of the research variables on the pre and posttest.
To compare the means for the two groups in the pre-test, independent samples t-tests were performed for the three research variables (mindfulness in conflict, empathy, and efficacy). As shown in Table 1, results indicated that the two groups had no statistically significant difference for mindfulness in conflict, t(59) = −1.93, p = . 058; empathy, t(59) = -1.87, p = .066 and efficacy, t (59) = −0.72, p = .473. The means obtained for the two groups at this time point showed that the subjects were "sometimes" to "often" aware of feelings that they experienced when they encountered conflict situations in the education sphere. Moreover, they tended to agree, from a "moderate" to a "great" extent, with perceptions and behaviors that attest to their ability to see and feel empathy toward the "other." Lastly, subjects from both groups reported a strong sense of efficacy when engaging with conflict situations in the education sphere (mean values close to 4 on a 5-point scale in both groups).
Regarding the comparison of the means for the two groups in the post-test, the data shown in Table 1 indicate that the mean for the experimental group (M = 3.79, SD = 0.37) was significantly higher than the mean for the control group (M = 3.30, SD = 0.54) on the variable of "perspective taking and motivation to feel empathy"; t(59) = −4.04, p < .001. The effect size for this analysis (d = 1.12) was found to be large (Cohen, 2013), which provides further support for the efficacy of the MtC intervention model. For the variables of mindfulness in conflict and efficacy, the difference between the groups was not significant (p = .382 and p = .678, respectively), although, slightly higher means were observed for the experimental group.
An overall examination of the means in Table 1 also shows that the differences between the groups and within the groups for "perspective taking and motivation to feel empathy" are relatively large. For both the other indices, there is relative stability in the comparison between the preand post-test results within each of the groups and between the experimental and control groups. However, on the "perspective taking" index a paired t-test showed there was a slight but significant increase (t(41) = −3.10, p = .003) for the experimental group between pre (M = 3.58, SD = 0.47), and post (M = 3.79, SD = 0.37), while there was no significant change in the control group (p = .744). The increase in the experimental group and the lack of change in the control group created a significant gap between the two groups at the end of the course.

Qualitative results of changes in teachers' level of mindfulness in conflict, empathy, and efficacy in conflicts
Thematic analysis of the teachers' final papers yielded evidence that supported the quantitative findings in relation to the three main research variables. Regarding "mindfulness in conflict," it was found that a considerable percentage (90%) of the teachers declared that they were aware of themselves and their conduct in conflict situations, both in the specific situation that they described in their final papers and elsewhere in their personal and professional lives. Table 2 describes different expressions of self-awareness in conflict reported by the teachers.
Importantly, the teachers were aware of the mindset that controlled them during the conflict and whether this was a mindset with the potential to escalate the conflict-conflict mindset, or one that could promote discussion and a solution-reconciliation mindset. One of the teachers wrote: I compare [the learning process in the course] to therapy: a person sits opposite a professional and learns to analyze his/her behaviors, reactions and thoughts, something that they are unaware of before . . . during the course I learned how to take a step back . . . and analyze myself with greater awareness.
Ninety percent of the teachers reported expressions of empathy toward the "other" with whom they were in conflict. The first thing that stood out in many of the teachers' reports was their awareness of the other party to the conflict and their ability to take them into account, to make room for them and to consider their perspective in the conflict-the feelings, emotions, and difficulties they experience in the conflict situation. This ability was enhanced for some of the teachers during the course. Despite the actual conflict at the time, the teachers were able to bring to mind the normative relations that usually exist between them and the other person. In addition to these expressions of empathy, some of the teachers described the ability to see the emotional difficulty and distress that the other side in the conflict was experiencing even when the other party's behavior toward them was harmful. For example, one of the teachers wrote: Indeed, I found it very difficult to stand in her shoes, but for one moment I succeeded in understanding her pain and frustration as a mother who discovers how many difficulties her daughter was experiencing that were not under control.
Additional evidence was obtained concerning the "sense of efficacy to engage with conflict" in the teachers' final papers. A majority (81%) of the teachers demonstrated strong abilities to engage with complex conflict situations vis-à-vis students and/or parents, while intelligently planning the engagement process and integrating the use of appropriate tools. Half of the teachers explicitly reported a sense of self-efficacy, confidence, ability and success in their coping with conflicts in the education sphere following the course. According to the teachers, the learning process in the course enabled them to acquire knowledge, adopt and internalize conflict transformation tools and approaches, and enhance their belief in their self-efficacy. All these, put together, gave them a sense of confidence. One of the teachers wrote: Actually, I did not expect to succeed in managing that conflict in such a positive manner and I was even a bit anxious . . . but because I had successfully internalized the principles from the course and had a high level of trust in the method, I knew that I could stand up to it.
Ten teachers (24%) described the successful use of the tools in specific situations with their students and the sense of efficacy they derived from this. Nevertheless, at the end of the course, other teachers stated that they needed more training in order to use the tools more skillfully.
In sum, the quantitative results reveal that compared to the control group, participants in the experimental group who received training in the MtC model, reported not significant, but slightly higher sense of mindfulness in conflict and efficacy to cope with conflicts, and significantly higher levels of empathy toward the "other". The qualitative findings support and expand upon the quantitative findings. Most of the teachers reported changes following the course that led them to greater self-awareness in conflict situations, more awareness of the "other" and the ability to be empathic toward them, and a stronger sense of their ability to engage with conflict situations.

Quantitative results predicting the sense of self-efficacy to engage with conflicts
To examine the second research question, a multiple regression analysis was conducted to identify which variables could predict the teachers' sense of self-efficacy to engage with situations of conflict in the classroom. The predictor variables were the level of mindfulness in conflict situations and the ability to see the "other." This analysis was conducted for each of the experimental and control groups. Table 3 presents the results of this test.
Results showed a significant regression equation only for the experimental group (F (2,39) = 4.00, p = .026). The model explained 17% of the variance for the experimental group, and only 4% of the variance for the control group.
Of the variables, "perspective taking" contributed significantly (p = .048) to predicting the sense of efficacy for experimental group subjects, such that when subjects reported a better ability to see the "other" and have a sense empathy toward them, they also reported a higher sense of ability to engage with conflict situations in the classroom. In contrast, in the control group, neither of the predictor variables contributed significantly and uniquely to predicting a sense of efficacy.

Qualitative results relating to the sense of self-efficacy to engage with conflicts
Qualitative analysis of the final papers indicated that for most of the teachers (81%), there was a strong relationship between their ability to feel empathy and their sense of self-efficacy to engage with conflicts, as manifested in their actual conduct in conflict situations in the education sphere. Many teachers reported understanding the importance of a sense of empathy and expressions of empathy to promote wholesome solutions to conflict. In fact, an empathic perspective of the "other" usually constituted the first step in a series of conflict engagement actions and it appears that most of the teachers were strongly motivated to see the "other," to put themselves in their shoes, and to understand what was important for them.
Many teachers described the conscious effort they invested in expanding their perspective and putting themselves in the place of the "other" so that they could succeed in seeing the sequence of events from the other person's viewpoint as well. Standing in the other's shoes served the teachers mainly in trying to understand what the other side in the conflict saw as important, what their unsatisfied needs were, and what their motivations were-what led them to behave in a particular manner. This perspective taking was performed both as part of the preparation for a meeting with the other side in the conflict and also during the meeting itself. One of the teachers wrote: During the course I understood that in order to cope with conflict in the best possible manner, I needed to try to understand how the conflict is seen and felt by the other side. This action is not simple -I have to detach myself from my own feelings and emotions and to invest efforts in the attempt to understand the other. Despite my difficulty, I find this tool is very effective and helpful in conflict engagement.
Empathic considerations produced good results in terms of the teachers' ability to manage a constructive conversation and to advance toward transformation of the different conflicts, including: dissipation of the other's anger, discharging the other's emotions to enable them to listen, opening up the possibility of conducting a conversation, expressing regret and apologizing, and willingness to cooperate.
The qualitative analysis revealed that most of the teachers' (74%) self-awareness in conflict also contributed to their efficacy in engaging constructively with conflicts in the education sphere. Many teachers described a conscious process of restraining automatic reactions and examining conflict situations from several viewpoints, allowing them to choose and apply suitable tools to manage a constructive conversation and promote a wholesome solution to the conflict. They were able to examine their feelings, attitudes, needs, and conduct during the conflict and pause, regulate their difficult emotions, analyze the situation in a more considered manner, and assume responsibility. All this enabled the teachers to act in a mindful, empathic, and effective manner within the conflict. One of the teachers described her coping process when facing a student in a conflict situation: There was restraint despite the anger that arose, and I also had a sense of superiority, preaching and punishment that was later transformed into my understanding that this would not be the way to progress, neither for me nor for her. Consequently, I experienced softening that enabled a candid conversation and cooperation including applauding the effort that she made.
It can thus be seen that concerning the second research question, in contrast to the control group, the described self-reports of the experimental group, reflected their success in translating the ability to feel empathy for the "other" into behavior that was expressed when they engaged in conflict situations in the classroom. Qualitatively, the analysis of the teachers' papers indicates that the teachers' ability and motivation to put themselves in the place of the "other," in addition to their mindfulness in conflict, positively influenced their sense of self-efficacy and their capability to engage with conflicts in wholesome ways.

Discussion
The present research conducted a comparison between two groups of novice teachers in the year following their internship, with one group that received training in the MtC model and a comparison group of teachers that did not. Quantitative analyses focused on examining teachers' mindfulness in conflict situations, sense of empathy toward the "other," and sense of selfefficacy in coping with conflict situations in education settings. Qualitative analyses aimed to track the particular contribution of the MtC model with regard to the three above-mentioned variables. The most prominent findings are discussed separately in relation to mindfulness in conflict, empathy, and a sense of self-efficacy, although in learning the model, as in educational reality, these variables are interrelated and interdependent.
The research findings indicated that studying the model was linked to an increase in teachers' mindfulness regarding their conduct in conflict situations. This awareness, as shown by the qualitative findings, promoted a change in their perception of conflict-as an event that could be coped with in a constructive manner. This awareness led to fostering a sense of capability and the ability to view the "other" through a "reconciliation mindset." Moreover, the teachers demonstrated a higher level of awareness of the "other," the partner in the conflict. This finding is in line with previous studies, which indicate that teachers who believe in their efficacy to identify and regulate emotions are able to be empathic toward others (Hen et al., 2016). In addition, this finding supports the notion that a teacher cannot commit to the individual growth of a student without experiencing growth and development of his/her own (Kaniel, 2013;Lampert, 2008). Kaniel (2013) further describes three dimensions of change: change in material and content, change in teaching approaches and methods, and change in beliefs and attitudes. The former is the easiest but most superficial change, while the latter is the most difficult and painful change because it necessitates an inner change. In Kaniel's opinion, this process requires significant investment since the system of beliefs is durable against change and one is often unaware of one's beliefs. This function of awareness is even more significant in situations of conflict, as they are highly charged situations. In line with this perception, the MtC model suggests that in order to cope with conflict and disagreement it is first necessary to focus on our personal experience, on "what is happening to me." In other words, the teachers' attentiveness should be focused first and foremost on themselves, on what is happening to them in such a situation. This inner process enables them to increase awareness of their own behaviors and perceptions that hinder their constructive engagement with conflict, and to foster the desire and ability to alter them.
Another finding that emerged from the research relates to the ability of those who trained in the model to demonstrate empathy toward the "other," even in situations of disagreement. According to the model's rationale, the combination of development of awareness of what is happening to oneself-without any judgment, with the development of awareness of what is happening to the "other," leads to the ability of the teacher to feel empathy toward the "other" and to behave in an empathic manner even in a conflict situation. This finding is very important, since the professional literature indicates that despite the substantial contribution of empathy to the creation of positive social relations, people tend not to feel empathy and not to act in an empathic manner in conflicts, i.e., empathic failure (Galinsky et al., 2005;Zaki & Cikara, 2015).
According to the reports of the teachers who trained in the model, empathy was expressed in different ways: awareness of the "other" during the conflict, willingness to take them into account, the motivation and ability to put themselves in the other's place and understand their viewpoint concerning the conflict, and, understanding the other's feelings and performing empathic actions toward them. All these constitute a positive experience of pro-social behavior and contribute to the deepening of relationships as well as to the school climate. As Lampert (2008) notes, meaningful dialogue that involves empathy between teachers and students reinforces good relations in the classroom, which constitute a condition for meaningful learning.
Additionally, the quantitative findings from the research indicate that the ability to feel empathy even in conflict situations was a significant predictor of the sense of efficacy in teachers exposed to the MtC model. Indeed, the teachers' reports attested to the existence of a strong connection between their ability to sense empathy and their sense of efficacy to practically engage with conflict situations. These findings echo those of Hen (2010), who reported a significant positive correlation between empathic concern and general empathy and teachers' sense of self-efficacy, especially regarding the capabilities employed in their relationships with their students and partially regarding the capabilities needed to perform teaching tasks.
It thus appears that during the course, the teachers acquired tools that increased their emotional skills and enabled them to resolve conflicts in a constructive manner. The reported successes empowered their sense of self-efficacy. This finding is supported by Kaniel's (2013) assertion that experiences of success and failure and the interpretation that the person and their environment provide for those experiences, are the main source of their sense of selfefficacy. Successful experiences reinforce the individual's belief in their abilities, while failures arouse doubts in their sense of self-efficacy.

Limitations and suggestions for future research
The study described here has several limitations which, if overcome, could give rise to future studies that would expand and deepen knowledge in this field. The research was conducted on a small sample (61 teachers), which was not necessarily representative of all novice teachers who participated in courses offered at the college. This limits the generalizability of the research findings. Future research to test the effectiveness of the model should therefore be performed on a larger and more heterogenous teacher sample, including from other stages in teaching.
The study's quantitative findings are based on a subjective self-report questionnaire, and while the reports recorded in the final papers were more authentic and reflected the teachers' functioning in the field in a more trustworthy manner, still did not directly indicate what happened to them in practice. It would be interesting to return to those teachers after a year or two and examine, via direct observation, for example, whether the skills and tools they acquired during the course did indeed increase their ability to cope effectively with social and emotional challenges encountered in the education sphere.

Implications of the research findings
The research findings point to several possible contributions stemming from the use of the MtC model in the education sphere. It emerged that learning the MtC model enabled teachers to engage with conflicts effectively, prevent escalation of disagreements, improve relations with others, and promote understanding and collaboration across divides. As noted by one of the teachers who studied the model: "I can say that the training appears to have saved my career as a teacher in the long run. I wouldn't have received the tools that we learned during the course in any other way." From a theoretical standpoint, this study contributes to the corpus of knowledge dealing with conflicts in the education sphere as well as knowledge of mindfulness in conflicts. As was evident from the literature review, perhaps insufficient attention has been paid to these areas despite their significant influence on different life domains.
From a practical viewpoint, it is therefore possible to assume that the teachers who studied the model developed a new language and a new perspective concerning conflicts, in addition to acquiring practical tools. This combination allowed them to assimilate the change in all aspects of their life. Furthermore, according to their reports, studying and training in the model allowed the teachers to overcome the empathic failure prevalent in conflict situations and to succeed in using expressions of empathy even in charged situations.
Developing skills to engage with conflict in the education sphere along with empathy and tolerance are professionally important qualities of a modern teacher (OECD, 2017;Savina et al., 2020). More recently, COVID-19 has drawn attention to these social skills, which are in high demand in the workplace (Nigh, 2021). The research findings indicate that studying and training in the MtC model did indeed promote several skills that are very relevant for the current COVID-19 challenges facing all education systems, enabling teachers and lecturers at all levels to be more attentive to their students.
Additionally, the present study points to the importance of support for teachers and its positive results. This is particularly true for novice teachers, and more recent literature continues to confirm that induction programs are one of the most effective practices in acculturating new teachers to their new profession careers (Kearney, 2017), and improving their ability to cope with the many tensions inherent in their work (Herman et al., 2020). In particular, the contribution of support and guidance for novice teachers is to be noted with respect to advancing their teaching, improving students' achievements, and ability to persevere in teaching (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Since the complexity of the teaching profession requires a lifelong learning perspective in order to adapt to rapid change and evolving constraints or needs (Catalano et al., 2020), it is recommended that the education system be encouraged to invest in, and assimilate skills for, constructive conflict engagement in various professional development settings, existing curricula, and daily practices and routines (Hoffmann et al., 2020), even after teachers have accumulated several years of experience in the field. These attributes, mentioned above, can all be framed as part of a social and emotional learning approach that has surged over the past two decades in research, policy, and practice in the education field all over the globe (Durlak et al., 2015).
To sum up, as suggested by other studies (Čiuladienė & Boboc, 2020;Doğan, 2016;Sydnor, 2017;Valente & Lourenço, 2020a), the present study demonstrated the significant potential that the conflict offers in the teaching profession for growth and the development and nurturing of skills at the personal, interpersonal and intragroup levels, as well as for learning and ideological development.