Mapping the portrayal of small modular reactors in Canadian Energy Solutions

ABSTRACT The Arctic region exhibits socio-economic disparities and diverse development strategies among Arctic states. Energy solutions in the Arctic necessitate industrialisation and ground infrastructure, with many off-grid Arctic communities relying on diesel power due to limited accessibility and high transportation costs. Moreover, there is growing interest in renewable and low carbon energy, followed by the consideration of nuclear solutions as part of the transition to achieving net-zero emissions. Local perspectives are crucial in formulating sustainable energy policies tailored to specific needs. Canada, with its established nuclear supply chain and technical capabilities, provides a pertinent case study for incorporating Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) as part of its energy transition. Within the context of transitions in Arctic communities, this paper’s primary focus is on mapping the portrayal of SMRs within Canada’s energy solutions. This investigation relies on publicly available sources to analyse how SMRs are depicted and integrated into Canada’s energy landscape. This paper analyzes publicly available discourse to examine various perspectives on SMRs, emphasising the most prominent viewpoints, including Indigenous perspectives. The results provide an exploration of the intricate difficulties and potential benefits associated with SMRs in the context of Canada's shift towards cleaner energy sources. Indigenous viewpoints add a wide range of perspectives, both endorsing and opposing SMRs, highlighting the complexity of SMRs employment and the need for future research on this emerging topic.


Introduction
The Arctic region's socioeconomic diversity and varying development strategies among Arctic states underscore the complexity of addressing climate change challenges.Central to this challenge is the adoption of renewable and low-carbon energy solutions, a transition reliant on the presence of robust industrialisation and ground infrastructure.However, a critical factor that complicates this transition is the off-grid nature of many Arctic communities. 1 Despite existing challenges, there is growing interest in renewable and low-carbon energy within the Arctic region, driven by the dual objectives of achieving economic savings and safeguarding the environment.Recognising the pivotal role of local perspectives in the formulation of sustainable energy policies, it is essential to acknowledge the need to tailor these policies to address the unique needs and circumstances of Arctic communities.In this context, both renewable and nuclear energy solutions are increasingly being considered as part of the transition towards achieving net-zero emissions.Applying the context of the energy transition towards net-zero in Canada, this study examines how nuclear energy development projects in the Arctic may affect the environment and livelihoods of Arctic residents, mapping both the challenges and opportunities associated with such initiatives.
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are increasingly being viewed as part of low-carbon energy transition in a climate change solution, especially in remote Arctic regions, 2 where they can provide a stable energy load.This article explores the role of SMRs as part of an energy transition, using Canada as a case setting.Canada's proactive adoption of SMRs as a component of its strategy for decarbonisation is substantiated by its well-established nuclear supply chain complemented by robust technical and production capabilities. 3ignificantly, Canada's relevance in the Arctic context is underscored by its Indigenous population, comprising First Nations, Métis, and Inuit communities.This study employs qualitative data from public sources, including government publications, Indigenous-led organisations' media, and webinar transcripts, to explore stakeholder views on SMRs in Canada, particularly in the context of Arctic energy transitions.It is essential to note that this research aims to gauge publicly available vocal perspectives surrounding SMRs in Canada, and not to speak on behalf of Indigenous communities.
The findings provide exploratory insight into the intricate challenges and potential benefits associated with SMRs in the context of Canada's transition towards achieving net-zero emissions.The inclusion of Indigenous perspectives, which encompass a diverse spectrum of opinions both in favour of and against SMRs, highlights the need for future research on this emerging area.
The remainder of this paper is organised as follows.The literature review in Section 2 delves into energy transitions in the Arctic.Section 3 provides a brief overview of SMRrelated research and a landscape of SMRs development in Canada.Section 4 presents materials and methods, data, and analytical lenses used.The results in section 5 present the findings arranged by theme.The findings in Section 6 are discussed in the context of the energy transition literature, followed by the conclusions in Section 7.

Literature review
This section introduces the energy transition challenges faced by the Arctic communities.Furthermore, an overview of recent research on the role of SMRs in energy mix is provided.

Energy transition in the Arctic communities
The Arctic is diverse, with different socioeconomic challenges, varying by economy, urbanisation, and demographics.The adoption of renewable and low-carbon energy in the Arctic is linked to industrialisation and infrastructure.Collectively Norway, Sweden, and Finland rely on renewable energy source for up to 85% of their electricity. 4Furthermore, Finland, Sweden, and Norway heavily invest in wind energy. 5While promoting renewables, it is crucial to address concerns about land seizures and Indigenous rights, as exemplified by Saami's objections to large wind power projects and their impact on reindeer herding traditions. 6any Arctic communities in Alaska, Greenland, the Canadian Arctic, and large portions of the Russian Arctic, live in 'off-grid settlements' that rely on diesel for their energy needs (see Figure 1).Overall, over 1,500 communities, with a total population exceeding 1.5 million inhabitants, rely on locally generated power.In Canada, 25% of all remote communities can supplement diesel electricity generation with renewables, whereas in Alaska, this figure is only 15%.The limited use of renewables in remote areas necessitates a substantial initial investment. 7The Arctic energy landscape encompasses a diverse range of sources including renewable and fossil fuel-based energy.Diesel and heavy fuel oil (HFO) remain prevalent in remote Arctic communities in Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Greenland, and the Russian Arctic.Arctic renewable energy garners attention to economic, environmental, and pollution benefits, despite inherent challenges.Iceland and Norway are examples of regions where renewable energy sources are present in large communities with well-developed energy infrastructure and high grid connectivity.8Implementing sustainable energy policies involves considering local perspectives, including community needs and drivers of renewable energy adoption in Arctic municipalities. 10These factors may differ from those at the national or regional level as they reflect the unique characteristics and challenges of local communities.For example, in the context of the Russian Arctic energy industry, the state plays a crucial role in influencing development. 11Central to the attainment of sustainability in the Arctic is imperative for optimising resource utilisation. 12To reduce the dependence on diesel-based power systems and increase sustainability, infrastructural investments are required. 13More than 280 remote Canadian communities lack connections to the North American electrical grid or natural gas distribution pipeline systems, relying predominantly on diesel-fired power generation, as reported by the Canadian Energy Regulator. 14rctic energy transition research increasingly emphasises justice concerns, such as the potential benefits and drawbacks of the Nordic low-carbon transition, which may not adequately address vulnerable populations. 15Just energy transition means transforming the economy in a way that is as fair and inclusive as possible to everyone concerned, creating decent work opportunities, and leaving no one behind. 16In some cases, Arctic energy development projects are seen as manifestations of resource colonialism and raise concerns about potential negative impacts on the environment and local communities. 17 just energy transition necessitates collaboration across a complex ecosystem, including public and private stakeholders, to address equitable employment, support atrisk communities and nations, and rectify energy transition inequities. 18Arctic energy justice must prioritise Indigenous voices, addressing climate change and energy transitions' potential harm to resource-dependent Indigenous communities.This involves environmental justice, tribal sovereignty recognition, and cultural ties to the ancestral lands. 19Indigenous Peoples' community involvement is necessary to identify adaptation needs and opportunities, and collaboration with the local people is essential for successful climate adaptation interventions. 20For instance, enhancing energy security in Arctic Canada (Inuvialuit Settlement Region) is challenging due to the perceived disconnection between the values and priorities of diverse actors and institutions involved in energy governance at multiple levels. 21Reed et al. analysed climate policies in Canada, including the Pan-Canadian Framework and the Québec ZéN Roadmap, which disproportionately affect communities, perpetuate inequalities, violate Indigenous rights, and exclude Indigenous Peoples from decision-making, despite aspirations of inclusion, contradicting reconciliation goals. 22Engaging communities in energy transition is crucial for equitable outcomes; however, challenges remain in addressing their needs and empowering them throughout the transition. 23ith only a limited number of studies available on SMRs, in a 2016 study, researchers critically examined the framing of SMRs within sustainability transition frameworks. 24his study specifically concentrated on its policy implications, drawing insights from the scarce renewable energy case studies to inform evidence-based policy decisions.Another study from 2020 acknowledged the remarkable diversity and complexity of Indigenous perspectives on the nuclear industry in Canada's far north region. 25

Small modular reactors as part of the energy mix
Currently, Canada's energy mix comprises 15% of nuclear power, and it is expected to maintain this share in the future, incorporating contributions from SMRs. 26 Canadian Nuclear Laboratories define SMRs as compact nuclear reactors that generate electricity in the range of one to 300 megawatts (MW), are built off-site in modular units, and utilise nuclear fission to produce heat and electricity. 27SMRs have gained global prominence in the transition to net-zero goals, recognised by the International Energy Agency (IEA) for their importance in achieving substantial emissions reduction, and policy and regulatory reforms play critical roles in facilitating the investment and deployment of SMRs. 28olicy and regulatory reforms play critical roles in facilitating the investment and deployment of SMRs.Challenges include cost competitiveness, and the need for testing, research and development, training, and international collaboration. 29Compared to regular nuclear fission plants, SMRs offer features such as enhanced safety, 30 robustness, 31 reduced capital costs, and suitability for diverse applications. 32The modularity of the SMR design allows incremental capacity building and shorter construction times.The wide range of SMR designs poses a challenge in selecting the most suitable design. 33SMRs have the potential to provide clean energy solutions in remote areas (e.g.Antarctica) 34 and various industries, including electricity generation, nuclear waste disposal, and water desalination.Multiple countries, including the US, Russia, China, and France, are involved in SMR development. 35SMRs may offer suitable solutions for low-carbon microgrids, but more research is needed to integrate standards and develop regulations. 36ramed as key players in clean energy innovation and the decarbonisation of power production, SMRs need to be examined through sustainability transitions frameworks to contribute to informed decision-making in communities considering SMRs in their clean energy strategies. 37Overall, more research is needed to explore SMRs' broader socioeconomic context, potential drawbacks, and long-term impacts of SMRs to offer policy recommendations.

Governmental support for SMRs in Canada
Canada released a Strengthened Climate Plan in 2020. 38This plan aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and embrace clean energy.In March 2022, the Canadian government unveiled Canada's 2030 Emissions Reduction Plan, a strategy aimed at guiding the Canadian economy towards achieving emissions reductions of 40-45% below 2005 levels by the year 2030. 39This plan builds upon the measures outlined in the previous Canadian climate strategies.SMRs play a vital role in Canada's Strengthened Climate Plan for the transition to clean energy.The government has taken supportive measures to facilitate this transition in response to the accelerated phase-out of coal-based power.The Federal Just Transition Task Force (JTTF) 40 released its final report stating that 'just transition means that society shares the costs of transitioning to a low-carbon economy'.The JTTF report also indicated that 'indigenous communities will be among those affected by the transition to a low-carbon economy and that just transition can also contribute to reconciliation with Indigenous peoples, consistent with calls for more equitable prosperity'. 41he main documents governing the development of SMRs in Canada are the SMR Roadmap from 2018 42 and SMR Action Plan from 2020.The SMR roadmap involved multi-stakeholder dialogue and expert analysis to examine the role of SMRs in the energy mix.Conversations were conducted nationwide, involving first contact with Northern and Indigenous communities and organisations, spanning 10 months and engaging over 180 individuals from 55 organisations across various sectors and subsectors in workshops and Indigenous engagement sessions.
Canada's SMR Action Plan, 43 updated in 2022, outlines the key principles for supporting the development and deployment of SMR technologies in Canada, including integrating SMRs with other clean energy sources and pursuing waste minimisation.It also focuses on exporting technology and has over 119 partners committed to over 500 actions.According to the plan, Canada aims to enhance global energy security by addressing diversification, cybersecurity, geopolitics, and climate impacts and by exporting uranium, critical minerals, and nuclear technology to promote a resilient, low-carbon future through safe, clean, and affordable SMR-powered energy.The Indigenous Advisory Council for the SMRs Action Plan, formed in October 2021, offers a national Indigenous perspective on SMR policies, programmes, and decisions in developing the SMR Action Plan. 44The SMR Leadership Table was created in 2022, comprising representatives from various stakeholders, such as federal and provincial governments, Indigenous communities, industry, and non-governmental organisations.According to the Indigenous SMR Leadership Table its members will 'endeavour to demystify nuclear energy' 45 in their communities, but trust in this technology will be created by consistent and equitable SMR involvement.Engaging these communities early and regularly can assist SMR projects in obtaining support because of the socioeconomic benefits.

Regional initiatives in SMRs development
In December 2019, the premiers of New Brunswick, Ontario, and Saskatchewan signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to explore SMRs' potential applications of SMRs. 46In 2022, the governments of New Brunswick, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta released a strategic plan for SMR utilisation. 47The plan acknowledges Indigenous communities in Alberta's interest in partnerships and participation across the energy sectors, including SMRs.The plan mentions justice in the context of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report's 48 recommendations related to business and reconciliation and outlines consultative bodies and tribal councils that are involved in SMR deployment planning.
In 2021, three Indigenous companies in Saskatchewan -Kitsaki Management, Athabasca Basin Development, and the Des Nedhe Group -signed an MOU to explore SMRs and support nuclear power in the province. 49Saskatchewan has agreements with Ontario, Alberta, and New Brunswick to explore SMR technology, with the first reactor scheduled to be operational by 2032. 50Key concerns surrounding nuclear energy include the safety and security of nuclear power plants, the risk of nuclear accidents and meltdowns, the disposal of nuclear waste, the impact on traditional land and lifestyles, and the need for more meaningful consultation with Indigenous communities in decisionmaking processes. 51

Future of SMRs in Canada
Currently, there are no functioning SMRs in use in Canada.As per Natural Resources Canada, deploying SMRs in Canada's 79 remote communities with energy demands exceeding 1 MWe could potentially lead to cost reductions, elimination of high diesel expenses, and support for potential new mining ventures.Additionally, Canada is home to 24 operational or potentially operational off-grid mines and possesses an established nuclear science and technology infrastructure, which includes a comprehensive uranium supply chain spanning mining, processing, nuclear power generation, and waste management (see Figure 2). 52anada's 2022 budget showed a commitment to decarbonisation through investments in the SMR industry and electricity development.It included $120 million for SMR programmes and $250 million for electricity initiatives, with a focus on early SMR development.Additional efforts included the $1.2 billion redevelopment of the Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories.The Strategic Innovation Fund allocated nearly $100 million to the SMR technology development. 53By 2028, a 300 MWe SMR project is expected to be constructed at the Darlington Nuclear Site in Ontario. 54Saskatchewan is set to follow SMR units that are expected to be operational by 2034. 55

Materials and methods
This study builds on qualitative data using publicly available information such as governmental publications, press releases, media publications, and publicly available webinars related to SMRs in Canada.Webinars were chosen to represent a wide range of stakeholders, including research organisations, government entities, and Indigenous non-profit organisations.These stakeholders included the First Nations Power Authority, Ontario Clean Air Alliance, Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC), Yukon University, Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis, Conservation Council of New Brunswick, The Macdonald-Laurier Institute, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories, and the Electrical Business Network (for more details see Appendix I).
Using webinar transcripts, this study examined diverse stakeholder perspectives across different regions, suited for investigating SMRs in the Canadian Arctic energy transition context amidst increased online participation due to COVID-19. 58The chosen method is appropriate for investigating the emerging SMRs topic because it partially overcomes the challenges associated with collecting data from Indigenous Arctic stakeholders. 59hile this method has its merits, it also presents notable limitations.Specifically, depending solely on webinars in this context may yield a relatively limited portrayal of Indigenous viewpoints, primarily because it relies on a specific search term ('SMR and Canada') that may not encompass the wider spectrum of Indigenous perspectives on nuclear power available through alternative sources and organisations.
In an effort to address this limitation and ensure a more comprehensive exploration of SMRs' portrayal, the study expanded its scope by considering the viewpoints of 52 Cameron, Canada's SMR Action Plan. 53 Indigenous Climate Action, Indigenous Clean Energy, Clean Energy BC, and the Pembina Institute.Furthermore, the analysis incorporated publicly available publications and reports from these organisations, thereby enriching the examination of the subject matter with a wider range of perspectives and insights.Future research could overcome these limitations by incorporating in-person interviews, questionnaires, and ethnographic studies to gain a more holistic understanding of Indigenous perspectives on SMRs and nuclear energy.The following words were used for the webinars search on YouTube: 'SMR and Canada'.Criteria for webinar selection included credibility (webinar hosted by a reputable organisation), inclusion of diverse expertise, and, preferably, inclusion of indigenous speakers.Altogether, 18 webinars available on YouTube were analysed, totalling 12 hours and 44 minutes of videos (see Appendix I), which were subsequently transcribed and coded using NVivo software for qualitative data analysis.
Publicly available reports from the Canadian government, Indigenous Climate Action, Indigenous Clean Energy, Clean Energy BC, and the Pembina Institute and webinars on SMRs in Canada were analysed, with data coded and themes identified using NVivo software.The following themes emerged: the role of the government, opportunities and challenges of SMR development, and engagement with Indigenous Communities.These themes reflect discussions presented by different stakeholders without attributing them to a particular speaker unless the statement is from a written source.

Results -multistakeholder perspectives on SMR in Canada
This section analyses the corpus of transcripts from webinars (see Appendix I) and reports from Indigenous-led organisations.NVivo software was used for thematic analysis and coding.It is important to mention that eight out of 18 webinars were organised by The First Nations Power Authority (FNPA), established in 2011 as a notfor-profit organisation to facilitate the development of First Nations led power projects and promote Indigenous participation in power procurement opportunities.With funding support from Natural Resources Canada, FNPA has developed the National SMR Forum with Indigenous communities bringing together industry and government interested in the development of SMRs and other clean energy technologies.

Role of government in SMR development
The webinars' participants discussed the role of the Government of Canada in supporting the development and deployment of SMRs.This includes funding for research and development, creating regulatory frameworks that enable SMR deployment and supporting public education and engagement.In addition, the government can help facilitate partnerships between industry and Indigenous communities to ensure that SMR projects are developed in a manner that respects Indigenous rights and interests.
The government may provide concessionary capital or develop a national benefitsharing framework that could evolve into a loan guarantee programme similar to that seen in the Alberta Indigenous Opportunities Corporation, 60 or similar backstops in Ontario and Saskatchewan.Additionally, Minister Wilkinson's mandate letter 61 included a duty to develop a national benefit-sharing framework that could help ensure that Indigenous communities benefit from the development of SMRs.Ultimately, however, it will be important for Indigenous communities to be fully engaged in the front-end of the development process and for there to be trust and relationships built between proponents and Indigenous communities.Indigenous communities have expressed interest in SMRs as a tool to work towards net-zero emissions by 2050 but have also emphasised the need for consultation and understanding of the technology before making any decisions.
The role of the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC), the sole authority in Canada responsible for regulating the development, production, and use of nuclear energy and substances to prevent unreasonable risks, has also been discussed in webinars.
60 Alberta Indigenous Opportunities Corporation (AIOC) bridges the gap between Indigenous groups seeking commercial partnerships in major projects and their financial capacity.AIOC has been delegated the authority to provide up to $1 billion in loan guarantees to reduce the cost of capital for Indigenous groups and to support their ability to raise capital to invest in natural resources, agriculture, telecommunications, and transportation projects. 61Resilient LLP, Prime Minister Releases New Mandate Letters for Cabinet.
The speakers commented that the CNSC was open and flexible in its regulatory processes and collaborated with Indigenous communities to regulate SMRs.
However, it is important to note that the development and deployment of SMRs will require significant investment and collaboration among the industry, government, and other stakeholders.Regulatory and public acceptance challenges62 must also be addressed.Overall, Government support can expedite SMR deployment in mining, fostering sustainable economic growth.There have been success stories coming from the northern Saskatchewan and the uranium mines and services sector.However, it has also been acknowledged that nuclear energy may not be the first partnership pursued by many Indigenous economic development corporations.

Opportunities related to SMRs
According to views expressed during webinars, SMRs in Canada offer opportunities and benefits, such as creating middle-class jobs, enhancing competitiveness, fostering prosperity, supporting reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples, and reducing emissions in the mining, oil, and gas sectors.Some federal and provincial authorities support SMR initiatives as they are more efficient, flexible, and capable of providing electricity, heat, and steam for homes, businesses, and industrial processes.SMRs have the potential to deliver safe and sustainable energy sources for various applications, complementing renewables and providing reliable clean energy in remote and off-grid communities.In the webinar organised by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, the safety attributes of SMRs were highlighted: The passive safety features of SMRs are also attractive features since they allow a new approach to operations, including less on-site staff, remote monitoring and less reliance on operator actions.As discussed, SMRs can be used in application for desalination and district heating, or perhaps for providing energy for mines up North.
Regarding opportunities for Indigenous communities, the following themes emerged.SMRs can potentially offer carbon-free base-load energy and enable Indigenous engagement in development, employment, and economic growth.In this regard, one panellist stated, 'we need to ensure that we're laying that path to prosperity for many Indigenous communities across the country through advanced education, skill development, and training'.Furthermore, Indigenous communities may have the opportunity to invest in technology licencing companies involved in the development of SMRs.It was also mentioned that the Northern Canadian communities currently reliant on flown-in diesel fuel are prime candidates for microreactor use, offering energy independence, electricity, and potential district heating solutions.Additionally, SMRs of technology can be used to curtail the 'impact of soot on people's health in the north.' The speakers noted that SMRs present an opportunity for potential partnerships between Indigenous Communities and SMRs proponents and encourage early dialogue and the development of partnerships.For instance, the following quote from a speaker at the McDonald Laurier Institute webinar demonstrates a view supporting SMRs: I'm proud to say that last year myself and two other economic development corporations in Northern Saskatchewan essentially where all the uranium comes from in Canada put out a press release that we want to invest in these SMRs going forward and this was, you know, most likely 10 years before they're commercialized but we wanted Canada to know that Indigenous People do support these projects but we want to be investors in these projects.
During webinars it was emphasised that Indigenous community engagement is vital for fostering supplier relationships with Indigenous-owned businesses and companies with high Indigenous employment rates.Acknowledging progress extends from utilities' recent engagement with Indigenous communities in the supply chain, where SMRs are viewed as part of a conversation on cleaner, more affordable, and reliable energy sources for northern communities.A speaker from FNFA webinar 'Indigenous opportunities from SMRs' raised the need to be included in the dialogue on SMRs development: Right now everyone's positive and enthusiastic about SMRs but I've worked in the nuclear industry and I can tell you that when you're actually getting closer to developing and deploying an SMR we're going to hear the rhetoric and we're going to hear the scare tactics we're going to hear the reasons why not and all the negative consequences that are that are surrounded around nuclear deployment and we need to be included in these conversations.
Opportunities for mining arose during webinars, particularly in Saskatchewan, where uranium mining offers favourable conditions for Indigenous workers, including good wages and health benefits.SMRs, whether at remote or grid-connected mining sites, provide continuous baseload power and potential for significant greenhouse gas emission reduction, making them an attractive choice for mining companies to enhance their operations both economically and sustainably.A panellist from FNPA webinar noted solar applications in the Far North but also highlighted SMRs as capable of meeting the global clean energy expectations prevalent in Canadian political discourse.

Challenges and critique related to SMRs
SMR implementation in Indigenous communities is intricate, with the key challenge being robust Indigenous engagement at the project's inception.Establishing trust and relationships through consultation and collaboration is crucial, addressing safety, environmental, and cultural aspects.Moreover, deploying new nuclear technology in Canada may encounter regulatory complexities.
In the view expressed during the webinar, the importance of safety and responsible management throughout the lifecycle of these technologies was paramount.The panellists discussed a number of stumbling blocks and challenges that need to be addressed, such as the costs and concerns related to nuclear energy.They also mentioned that there is still a long way to go in terms of engaging with indigenous communities and building supplier relationships for Indigenously owned businesses.During the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis webinar, SMRs were criticised for their poor cost-effectiveness compared with wind and solar energy sources.Additionally, panellists discussed the potential social challenges associated with engaging indigenous people in SMR implementation.
During the webinar organised by the Macdonald-Laurier Institute, it was acknowledged that it is imperative to consider the political context surrounding these discussions and the potential risks and benefits of SMRs.The political landscape of SMR development is both intricate and multifaceted.First Nations communities directly affected by SMR development may not be the sole stakeholders invested in the matter.Second-level First Nations, even if not directly involved by proponents, may still hold concerns about SMR deployment and its potential repercussions on their communities.This underscores the possibility of indirect impacts on neighbouring Indigenous Communities not directly engaged in the development process.
Although SMRs are believed to be safer than traditional nuclear reactors, they still pose potential risks, such as accidents, radiation exposure, and environmental contamination from nuclear waste.To mitigate these risks, safeguards such as the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission are implemented.Organisations collaborating with Indigenous communities should prioritise risk management and engage in collaborative processes to develop plans that address community concerns.The key message conveyed was the significance of relying on factual information and actively involving Indigenous communities in the discussions.One of the main concerns raised was the potential for accidents.Despite the assertions that SMRs are safer than traditional nuclear reactors, they still present security and health risks.
Another concern raised was the long-term management of nuclear waste.For example, a speaker at the FNFA webinar stated, 'there are concerns around waste management and decommissioning, and those are valid concerns'.SMRs will generate nuclear waste that must be disposed safely.This was regarded a complex and challenging issue.Other concerns discussed during webinar by Conservation Council of New Brunswick included the risks of nuclear proliferation and the potential for SMRs to become a financial burden for the government and the utility companies, as seen in previous nuclear projects in other countries.The social and environmental impacts of SMRs were considered in the discussions.The potential impacts of SMRs on traditional land uses and local communities, as well as the environment, were highlighted as concerns during the discussion.Regarding this a speaker at FNPA webinar on Meaningful Engagement questioned: If the land is being taken for this process happens to be traditional land where hunting gathering ceremonies and et cetera is placed what are the future safeguards and precautions in order to for securement and restoration of the environment around the plant and its operations During an Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis webinar, the discussion centred on uncertainties around the commercial viability of SMRs in their developmental phase and concerns about the feasibility of quickly deploying SMRs to achieve significant short-term greenhouse gas emissions reductions.Some Indigenous leaders in Canada have voiced reservations about SMRs through direct quotes encapsulating their concerns. 63Chief Wilfred King of Gull Bay emphasised the potential environmental risk of nuclear waste, even when buried in the Canadian Shield: 'Even if (nuclear waste) is buried in the Canadian Shield there's no guarantee this won't leak into our water systems'.This highlights the need for stringent waste management protocols to prevent contamination.Chief Duncan Michano of Biigtigong Nishnaabeg took a broader stance against nuclear processes, regardless of size: 'We have to resist any type of nuclear processes.Just because they're small doesn't mean they don't create nuclear waste'.Michano called for an end to federal support for the nuclear industry, reflecting widespread apprehension within Indigenous communities regarding environmental and societal impacts.Guy Lonechild, the head of the First Nations Power Authority (FNPA), acknowledged both the potential benefits and risks of nuclear technology.He stated: 'It certainly comes with certain risks, environmental risks and cumulative effects'.
Within the report by Indigenous Climate Action, 64 a compelling direct quote emerges: 'Though some policymakers and organizations promote nuclear energy as a solution to climate change, nuclear is expensive, dangerous, and pollutive'.This quote reflects a prominent stance against SMRs as an unsustainable and hazardous approach to climate-change mitigation.Moreover, the publication underscores broader challenges within Canadian climate policy, as it notes that 'Canadian climate policy is not only failing to meaningfully address climate change but is actually contributing to climate injustice, while promoting false solutions like natural gas and nuclear energy'.This critique extends beyond SMRs, emphasising the need for a comprehensive revaluation of climate strategies to ensure environmental justice and effective climate action.In an annual report the Indigenous Justice Network opposes 'approaches like Nature-based Solutions, Carbon Markets, and the expansion of fossil fuels and nuclear power'. 65he analysis reflects the multifaceted perspectives of Indigenous communities concerning SMRs.While recognising potential benefits, concerns about environmental risks and long-term impacts are central to the discourse.

Engagement with indigenous communities
Across this theme, there was acknowledgement of the longstanding challenges and obstacles encountered by Indigenous Peoples in Canada, spanning multiple generations.However, the webinar discussions emphasised the crucial importance of reconciliation and the imperative to avoid the side lining of Indigenous perspectives, talent, and potential.The FNPA was referenced as an example of Indigenous leadership in power project management, coupled with environmental stewardship.The FNPA National SMR Forum discussed partnering with Indigenous-owned businesses and provided training opportunities for indigenous youths.The goal is to create long-term jobs for indigenous communities rather than just short-term construction jobs.
The speakers highlighted the importance of consulting and engaging in dialogue with communities to address their concerns and ensure meaningful participation.They advocated for a community-driven approach, empowering communities to decide whether they want to be involved in SMRs.Building trust with Indigenous communities and ensuring their representation in decision-making processes regarding SMRs were also emphasised by the panellists.One panellist mentioned that meaningful partnership and ownership with Indigenous communities are important, rather than just training or contracting opportunities; hence, 'the engagement process is not just about consultation, it's about collaboration'.Additionally, early commercial arrangements with local communities can help build trust and comfort with SMRs as safe and non-emitting forms of energy.
During FNPA Mining and SMRs webinar it was it was discussed how 'it is important to recognize that Indigenous communities have unique cultural values and perspectives that must be taken into account when engaging with them on natural resource development projects'.The need to recognise cultural and social value of Indigenous Peoples was strongly present in several discussions, e.g.'engagement should be done in a meaningful and respectful way that takes into account the unique cultural values and perspectives of Indigenous communities', coupled with fair sharing of benefits 'we need to ensure that benefits are shared fairly with the community'.Furthermore, the speaker at FNPA Importance of Meaningful Engagement in Indigenous Communities webinar reiterated that 'Indigenous knowledge keepers or Elders should be involved in decision-making processes to ensure that traditional knowledge is respected and incorporated into decision-making processes'.
It was discussed that Indigenous Peoples need to be fully engaged at the front end of the development process, particularly in regions such as the English River in Northern Saskatchewan, where uranium mines are located.The region is one of Canada's largest Indigenous employers.At the same time, engagement with Indigenous communities in the North may require a different approach than in other regions, as there are strong expressions of not wanting technology that has not been tested before.
It was also mentioned that engagement goes beyond just having discussions, and that it is important to demonstrate more than that.During a webinar, there was discussion regarding the success of developing nuclear supply chain capabilities in Ontario through partnerships involving Indigenous businesses.The SMR Action Plan is a dynamic document that invites Indigenous voices to participate in its leadership throughout its implementation, with an annual meeting as a key component.The Yukon University Webinar outlined a three-step process: awareness (discussing opportunities), engagement (collaborating to identify needs and goals), and transactions (finalising agreements).It stressed the importance of respectful engagement with Indigenous communities throughout this process.At the same time, there is no one-size-fits-all approach to engaging with Indigenous Peoples, and there is a danger of engagement fatigue, which is a common issue in any type of engagement, particularly in the nuclear sector.As addressed during the webinar by the Yukon University engagement can be viewed as a spectrum: Both formal and informal interactions that can range from information sharing through to active consultation and collaboration in a decision-making process.Effective engagement is open, transparent, and participatory, and allows room for diverse perspectives.When engaging with others, there must be an authentic opportunity for those engaged to influence or impact decisions.Successful engagement means understanding where the public can actually influence or impact that decision.
The role of in-built processes was also deemed important as 'the process should have mechanisms built in for objective, timely, open, and accurate information sharing.This will help communities make self-determined, informed decisions.Additionally, effective engagement is open, transparent, and participatory, and allows room for diverse perspectives.'Overall, this theme provided examples and solutions on how Indigenous Peoples must be meaningfully involved in the development and implementation of SMRs in Canada to ensure that these projects are successful and that the benefits are shared fairly.

Discussion
Mapping the portrait of SMRs in government documents reveals the robust support and promotion of SMRs in Canada as a safe and reliable source of energy.The analysis of the institutional landscape regarding SMRs in Canada revealed a strong commitment by the Canadian Government to pursue the decarbonisation of the economy via Canada's Strengthened Climate Plan.The plan includes initiatives such as leveraging nature, promoting clean industries, reducing pollution, providing affordable, clean transportation and power, and reducing energy waste.Energy transitions as part of climate change in Canada echo previous research findings. 66In Canada, SMRs are considered vital for achieving these goals.The SMR Roadmap and Action Plan, along with the Federal Just Transition Task Force report, outline the development and deployment of SMRs, emphasising stakeholder engagement, including indigenous communities.The SMR Action Plan underscores the importance of integrating SMRs with other clean energy sources, waste minimisation, and capitalising on Canada's potential to contribute to global energy security and climate objectives.The plan also recognises the benefits of SMRs in creating a resilient, lowcarbon future and highlights the involvement of indigenous communities through the Indigenous Advisory Council and Indigenous SMR Leadership Table .Regional initiatives in New Brunswick, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta demonstrate interest in building partnerships with Indigenous communities, emphasising early engagement, and addressing environmental concerns that support the importance of local perspectives. 67Judging from documents, it appears that the necessary preconditions for just energy transitions using SMRs are in place in Canada. 68There are structures for a multi-stakeholder dialogue with the presence of Indigenous Peoples. 69The capacity of Canadian Arctic communities to negotiate locally and regionally is supported by the SMR Action Plan. 70evertheless, a more intricate understanding emerges from the analysis of webinars and reports conducted by Indigenous-led organisations.The Government of Canada's role was viewed as supporting the development and deployment of SMRs by providing funding for research and development, creating regulatory frameworks, supporting public education and engagement, and facilitating partnerships between industry and Indigenous communities.The CNSC, the sole authority responsible for regulating nuclear energy in Canada, was viewed as open and flexible in its regulatory processes and collaboration with indigenous communities.However, significant investment and collaboration among industry, government, and other stakeholders are required to address regulatory and public acceptance challenges.
The opportunities and challenges related to SMRs in Canada are summarised in Table 1.Many of the listed opportunities reflect similar findings from around the world, where SMRs are viewed as part of climate change solutions, 71 especially in remote 66 Allison, "Energy Justice, Climate Change, and the Challenge of Global Energy Governance". 67Gritsenko and Salonen, "A Local Perspective on Renewable Energy Development in the Russian Arctic". 68Wood-Donnelly and Ohlsson, "Introduction: Justice in the Arctic". 69Wood-Donnelly, "Responsibility of and for Structural (In)Justice in Arctic Governance". 70Larsen and Ingimundarson, "Overarching Issues of Justice in the Arctic: Reflections from the Case of South Greenland". 71IEA.Net Zero by 2050.
off-grid places.72Specific opportunities for Canada include providing carbon-free energy, generating employment, and fostering economic growth in indigenous communities, including the northern ones.The use of SMRs in the mining sector also stood out as a separate theme.Considering these challenges, the engagement of Indigenous Peoples at the front of development was raised, as well as the social and environmental impacts of the SMR on these communities.Other themes listed as challenges included safety, security, nuclear waste concerns, nuclear proliferation, and the commercial availability of SMRs to meet short-term climate goals.An analysis of the challenges demonstrates that there are not enough critical views and discussions available on the topic.Critical perspectives on SMRs are underrepresented in the available publications and webinars.
Some themes notably absent from the discourse include cost considerations, with a distinct dearth of comprehensive examinations of the social and environmental impacts of SMRs on local communities.This lack of discussion may stem from the novelty of the subject matter or the potential suppression of critical voices in mainstream conversations.Echoing findings about the complexity of this issue. 73ey themes in Indigenous involvement in Canada's SMR development include reconciliation, avoiding marginalisation, empowering communities through consultation, trustbuilding, meaningful partnerships, respect for cultural values, early engagement, transparent processes, and fair benefit-sharing.Indigenous leadership, traditional knowledge, and objective information sharing are vital, highlighting the central role of indigenous voices and participation in SMR's success.Overall, the development of energy transition in the Canadian Arctic takes a preventive approach, whereby discussions on SMRs take place almost 10 years before commercial utilisation of SMRs.Engaging Indigenous peoples at the front end of the development process.Create new economic opportunities for Canada, including job creation and export potential.
Addressing concerns about safety, environmental impact, and cultural values Provide a reliable source of clean energy for remote and off-grid communities.

Overcoming regulatory challenges
Benefit Indigenous communities in Canada in several ways, such as providing a source of carbon-free base load energy, creating employment opportunities, and contributing to economic growth.
Addressing the potential for accidents, radiation exposure, and nuclear waste contamination Be a favourable choice for generating power and heat at mining sites Managing the long-term storage of nuclear waste Provide mining companies with valuable opportunities to enhance their operations by improving energy efficiency and reducing environmental impact Avoiding nuclear proliferation.
Meet the new clean green energy expectations that are present in all political discourse across Canada and around the world Considering the social and environmental impacts of SMR, including on Indigenous Communities Commercial availability of SMRs

Conclusion
This study explored the portrayal of SMRs in energy transition with a specific focus on the Canadian context.Canada, as one of the leaders in SMR development, possesses a wellestablished nuclear supply chain and technical capabilities.The results of the study contribute to our understanding of the design of energy transitions that can be applied in other Arctic regions.
The Government of Canada plays a crucial role in driving the development and deployment of SMRs by funding research and development, establishing regulatory frameworks, and supporting public education and engagement.Certain Indigenous communities have voiced their interest in employing SMRs to attain net-zero emissions by 2050, while simultaneously opposing voices vehemently reject the adoption of nuclear energy.
Moving forward, it is important to recognise the limitations of existing research on SMRs and identify future research directions.Insufficient data on SMR performance and safety, as well as unknown cost estimates, present significant limitations, owing to the relative novelty of this technology.The complex nature of SMRs warrants further research in various areas, including research on critical voices.Conducting thorough research on SMRs as part of a just transition will enhance the understanding of their role in Canada's clean energy future and other Arctic regions, while also requiring careful consideration of their impact on existing social and environmental inequities.To avoid marginalisation and colonisation of Indigenous lands, it is crucial to prioritise the equitable development and deployment of SMRs, ensuring that they benefit Indigenous communities.
37Iakovleva et al., "Breaking Out of a Niche: Lessons for SMRs from Sustainability Transitions Studies, Nuclear Technology".38Environmentand Climate Change Canada, A Healthy Environment and a Healthy Economy.
39Government of Canada, "2030 Emissions Reduction Plan: Clean Air, Strong Economy".40TaskForce on Just Transition for Canadian Coal Power Workers and Communities, "What We Heard: Report of the Task Force on Just Transition for Canadian Coal Power Workers and Communities", 9. 41 Ibid., 14. 42 Natural Resources Canada, "SMR Roadmap: A Canadian Path to Clean, Reliable and Affordable Energy with Small Modular Reactors". 43SMR Action Plan Task Force, "SMR Action Plan Progress Update".
New Brunswick plans to build advanced SMRs, including the ARC-100 at Point Lepreau, by 2029 and Moltex Energy's Stable Salt Reactor by 2030. 56Global First Power aims to construct a 5 MW micro-SMR at Chalk River Laboratories in Ontario by 2026. 57 SMR Action Plan Task Force, SMR Action Plan Progress Update. 54ANS, "Contract for Darlington SMR Project Signed". 55CBC, "Sask.Pushes Decision on Site of Potential Small Nuclear Reactor Back to Late 2024". 56World Nuclear News, "New Brunswick Fast Reactor Operational within the Decade". 57Canadian Nuclear Laboratories, "AECL, CNL and Global First Power Unveil the Site of GFP's Proposed Small Modular Reactor at the Chalk River Laboratories". 58Wong et al., "The Use of Social Media and Online Communications in Times of Pandemic COVID-19". 59Doering et al., "Improving the Relationships between Indigenous Rights Holders and Researchers in the Arctic".

Table 1 .
Opportunities and challenges of SMRs in Canada.