Women's participation in and benefit from Rift Valley fever livestock vaccine value chain; current situation and barriers in Nyagatare District, Rwanda

Abstract Livestock vaccine value chains present opportunities for women's empowerment and income generation. To effectively position women to embrace these opportunities, understanding their current position and the factors that determine their involvement is crucial. This study mapped the actors, governance framework, and women's and men's positions along the value chain. It also analyzed gendered barriers to their participation and benefiting from services, processes, and products from the livestock Rift Valley fever vaccine value chain for livestock in Nyagatare District, Rwanda. Data was collected through 10 focus group discussions, 33 key informant interviews, and 1 stakeholder engagement meeting, while analysis was conducted thematically. Our results show that women's participation as importers, distributors, deliverers, or end-users was low to non-existent. Local gender norms curtailed women's participation and benefit at all nodes through restricted mobility, limited decision-making power, and restricted access to and control over resources. Additional barriers for stakeholders at the end-user node included a lack of knowledge about RVF vaccination in goats and how to demand or access the vaccine. This study recommends challenging persistent and limiting cultural norms through behavioral change communication by engaging men and boys as key actors for gender equality, engendering national and local planning and evaluation frameworks, and accelerating gender transformation in the private sector.


Introduction
Value chain [Vc] analysis helps businesses, governments, researchers, and development practitioners improve their outcomes by describing all the activities required to bring a certain product or service from the point of conception to production, distribution, and finally consumption (Porter, 1985).this approach supports the development of rational strategies for effective and efficient design, implementation, and evaluation at all levels of the product Vc.Value chains are embedded in any country's larger socio-economic systems and institutions.these institutions may be formal (public entities, private sector, legislation, and laws) or informal (cultural practices).these larger systems can facilitate, limit, or be neutral to the development of Vcs (Kaplinsky & Morris, 2000).livestock value chains create jobs, allow farmers to access inputs and markets, and create tax revenue for governments (Dihel et al., 2018). in Rwanda, they contribute more than 3% of the national gross domestic product (MiNaGRi, 2020) and have been earmarked by the Government of Rwanda (GoR) as a potential driver of sustainable economic development, especially for women and youth (MiNaGRi, 2018).livestock vaccine value chains (lVVcs) present that opportunity through importation, distribution, delivery, and use of livestock vaccines.Vaccines are essential for the prevention and control of infectious diseases that undermine livestock production and food security.among these lVVcs is the Rift Valley fever vaccine value chain (RVF-VVc).however, women must be well-positioned to embrace the opportunity and benefit from it.
Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a vector-borne viral zoonotic disease of public health and economic importance that affects ruminants such as goats, sheep, cattle, and wildlife, in addition to humans (Boshra et al., 2011).currently, there is no established treatment against RVF in sick individuals (livestock and humans) thereby emphasizing the need for reliable preventive measures (himeidan et al., 2014).even though it is difficult to establish when RVF was first reported in Rwanda, the World Organization for animal health (WOah) has continuously reported cases of the disease since 2012 (Wahis, 2018) and Umuhoza et al., 2017 reported the prevalence of RVF among cattle along the akagera and Nyabarongo rivers that drain more than 90% of the country's water bodies.the latest outbreaks were reported among cattle and possibly humans in Nyagatare, Gatsibo, and huye districts in 2018 and 2022 (Ngabonziza, 2018;RBc, 2022).currently, there is no published information on the prevalence of RVF among goats and sheep in Rwanda, and sick individuals are rarely tested.however, bovine cases are continuously being detected signifying that the disease is actively circulating, and perhaps farmers continue to experience significant livestock morbidities and mortalities (smith et al., 2021).
Rwanda's efforts to control and prevent RVF occurrence in susceptible livestock have been reliant on sporadic serological and passive surveillance, vector control, and vaccination of livestock (Griffith et al., 2023) using the modified live smithburn vaccine (FaO, 2020), manufactured by Biopharma in Morocco (smith et al., 2021).however, cattle have been the main target when vaccinating livestock since 2013 (MiNaGRi, 2020;smith et al., 2021), and the vaccination campaigns have rarely recognized women small-scale goat farmers. in Rwanda and many other places in africa, goats are rural women's favored livestock (GMO, 2017;taruvinga et al., 2022) because they are cheaper to purchase than cattle and can be more easily managed near the home while doing daily household chores and farming (Njuki & sanginga, 2013).similarly, men usually allow women to make relatively independent decisions or have more input on the use, sale, and disposal of goats while retaining greater control over cattle as well (FaO, 2016;UsaiD, 2015).RVF poses a challenge to these women farmers because of the potential economic devastation they would endure in case of outbreaks, despite the existence of affordable and effective vaccines.
to effectively position women to participate and benefit from processes, products, and profits accrued along the RVF-VVc as vaccine importers, distributors, deliverers, and users, there is a need to understand the position of women along the Vc nodes and the drivers of their participation and benefit.therefore, understanding the political, legal, social, and economic contexts that determine how men and women participate in or benefit from the RVF-VVc is crucial (Diouf, 2011;Quisumbing et al., 2015).this study combines Vc and gender analyses to establish the actors involved, the governance framework, power relations within the Vc, and stakeholder perception of women's position within the Vc (senders et al., 2013;UsaiD, 2017).the Vc analysis reveals the barriers women face, the consequences of their marginalization, and possible strategies to increase their participation and benefit from the RVF-VVc in Nyagatare District, Rwanda.

Study area and location
Nyagatare District is one of the 14 districts in the eastern Province of Rwanda and covers an area of 1,919 km 2 .it has 14 sectors and shares borders with Uganda to the north, tanzania to the east, Gatsibo District to the south, and Gicumbi District to the west.crop and livestock production are the main economic activities.according to the latest census, Nyagatare District has the greatest number of livestock in Rwanda, with at least an estimated 198,613 cattle, 181,637 goats, 108,026 chickens, 17,902 sheep, and 6,357 pigs (Nyagatare District, 2013).as of 2022, the population of Nyagatare was 653,861, with 48.7% of the population being male and 51.3% female (NisR, 2023).this study was conducted as part of a larger action research project aimed at advancing women's participation in and benefit from goat and poultry lVVcs in Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya. in Rwanda, the project was implemented in Rwimiyaga and Rwempasha sectors of Nyagatare district.

Participant recruitment
Participants of stakeholder engagement Meetings (seMs) and Key informant interviews (Kiis) at the national and sector level were purposively selected based on their role in the lVVc as policymakers, regulators, importers, distributors, deliverers, or as representatives of RVF vaccine end-users in Rwanda through farmer cooperatives.Participants of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Kiis at the community level were purposely selected by local officials based on the inclusion (ownership of 1-10 goats) and exclusion (deafness, blindness, or mentally impaired) criteria defined for the study.

Data collection
a total of 8 sex disaggregated FGDs, 2 mixed sex FGDs, 1 mixed sex seM, and 33 Kiis (16 women and 17 men) were conducted in 2020-2021 under the auspices of the project titled, "hearing their voices: action research to support women's agency and empowerment in livestock vaccine distribution, delivery and use in Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya." During the seM, the "Gender sensitive Vc Mapping tool" by Vanderschaeghe and lindo (senders et al., 2013) was used to visualize all the stakeholders, and their perception of women's position within the Vc, and identify the governance framework and power relations within the Vc.Focus group discussions were guided by the United states agency for international Development (UsaiD), five domains of gender analysis framework that include laws, policies, regulations, and institutional practices; cultural norms and beliefs; gender roles, responsibilities, and time use; access to and control over assets and resources; and patterns of power and decision making (UsaiD, 2017).Focus groups were conducted using various tools including access and control of resources profile, livestock daily activities profile, gender stereotype tree, and the livelihood analysis framework (Morse and McNamara, 2013).Key informant interviews involving vaccine importers, distributors, deliverers, end-users, regulators, and financiers were conducted as well to collect more in-depth information.all data collection tools were translated into Kinyarwanda, validated, and pretested.the FGDs and most Kiis were conducted in Kinyarwanda by eight bilingual research team members (table 1).Data from the national seM were collected using flip charts and group presentations, while the remaining data was collected through audio recordings, flip charts, and written notes.

Data management and analysis
except for the national seM, whose data was collected and compiled in one report, all data was audio-recorded, then transcribed, verified by the project team leaders, and translated into english for analysis and interpretation.Using the deductive thematic analysis approach (Fereday & Muir-cochrane, 2006), the main themes were manually identified through a code book which was created by a diverse research team from Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya.the patterns extracted were later interpreted to draw conclusions presented in this paper.GoR, 2009).RaB stations (RaB extension arm in strategic agricultural zones), together with the district, are responsible for annual RVF vaccine purchases and campaigns in high-incidence areas. in case of an outbreak, the same offices liaise to "establish coverage, acquire budget, implement, and monitor any emergency vaccination campaign in affected areas" (Male leader, Nyagatare District).importation of RVF vaccine was done through legally registered and authorized private entities (Figure 1) note: mInecoFIn -ministry of Finance and economic planning; mInaGrI -ministry and agriculture and animal resources; rFda -rwanda Food and drug authority; rppa -rwanda public procurement authority; rcvd -rwanda council of veterinary doctors; Sme -Small medium enterprise; ♂♂high male participation ♀♀high Female participation that respond to publicly advertised procurement tenders or requests by the government for direct sourcing.

RVF vaccine distribution and delivery
RVF vaccines are purchased by RaB and stored at national vaccine storage facilities upon arrival in Kigali city.every district places a vaccine order through the local RaB stations, which are transported and stored at district vaccine storage facilities.the District animal Resources Officer (DaRO) then rallies the sector animal Resources Officers (saROs) located in target vaccination areas, who in turn organize the administration of the vaccines to animals.Due to limited public veterinary staff, "The sector veterinarian, in collaboration with RAB, mobilizes local private veterinarians who are given a temporary assignment and paid according to the number of animals vaccinated" (Male leader, Nyagatare District).

VVC stakeholders and power dynamics
in Rwanda, the RVF-VVc is linear and hierarchical and is strictly controlled by government agencies, although private companies can be involved during importation.the Vc actors were mapped as policymakers and regulators, importers, distributors, deliverers, and vaccine end-users (Figure 1).

Manufacturers and importers
RaB is the institution responsible for the importation of government-controlled animal health inputs, including the livestock RVF vaccine. it imports RVF vaccines every fiscal year based on the vaccination targets set by districts in their annual performance contracts, known as "iMihiGO, " and the strategic reserve targets in case of outbreaks.in 2020, the "iMihiGO" performance contract for Nyagatare district did not include any RVF vaccination targets for goats and sheep; only cattle were considered.as a result, goats are less likely than cattle to be vaccinated.
We were not able to identify any livestock vaccine manufacturer in Rwanda.seM participants were not aware of the country and company from which the RVF vaccines were imported.a key informant revealed that livestock RVF vaccine used to be supplied by private vaccine importation companies like aGROtech ltd, saRURa ltd, and RaBscO ltd in response to procurement requests from the government however, currently "RAB directly sources the livestock RVF vaccines from BIOPHARMA, a livestock pharmaceutical company located in the Kingdom of Morocco" (Male leader, Kigali city).

Distribution
the GoR, through RaB, is solely responsible for the distribution of the RVF vaccine.When secured, vaccines are cascaded to saROs through the DaRO in close collaboration with the RaB stations."We [the sector vets] distribute the vaccines sent to us by the district.We also have a vaccine refrigerator [for RVF vaccines] here at sector offices" (Male leader, Rwimiyaga sector).

Delivery
the RVF livestock vaccine, like other injectable vaccines under government control, is administered to animals by saROs, in close collaboration with DaRO, RaB station personnel, and private veterinarians authorized to operate in the sector."Usually, the sector veterinarian brings the vaccines because that is where you find a vaccine fridge to keep them while other [private] vets don't have a fridge.At a certain time, the veterinarian chooses a day and puts the vaccines in a recommended box and then decides on the area to vaccinate and then goes to the farmers and vaccinate their livestock" (Male leader, Rwimiyaga sector).

End users
Owners of ruminant animals (cows, goats, and sheep) were identified as the RVF vaccine end-users (Figure 1), and access to the vaccine was dependent on government supply and vaccination strategy.When government livestock vaccination campaigns are conducted, all susceptible livestock are supposed to be targeted, however, the results suggest that goats are not usually identified for vaccination, and as a result, RVF vaccination for women-owned goats is not a common practice: "It is not easy for us, it happened like two times many years ago and normally they [the vets] don't like to vaccinate goats; rather they mostly come and vaccinate cows" (Female farmer, Rwempasha sector). in addition, one woman said, "My goats were last vaccinated two years ago when l received them but am not sure which vaccine the goats received" (Female farmer, Rwimiyaga sector).also, a farmer cannot individually request or demand the RVF vaccine even if it is recommended by a veterinarian: "A farmer cannot initiate a request for RVF vaccine for their animals except if planned by the district officials" (Male leader, Kigali city).
When goat vaccination activities are organized specifically for small ruminant diseases, the animals are brought to a common area for the service; however, this delivery approach is not convenient or practical for women due to their limited mobility compared to men.One woman said, "We take the goats to a common area, but sometimes it's difficult to leave home because of the household responsibilities that never end and yet nobody else is available to support me" (Female farmer, Rwempasha sector).

Women's participation in VC nodes
Government agencies such as RaB and Rwanda FDa employed more women than other actors/institutions identified along the Vc.For example, "In the department of animal resources development at RAB, almost 45% of employees are women and they occupy various decision-making positions including the deputy director general for animal resources" (Male leader, Kigali city).however, none of the identified private vaccine importation companies were owned or controlled by women, suggesting scant participation of women in the upstream nodes of the VVc (Figure 1)."Women who go abroad to import items are very few.Even those who do, work as saleswomen" (Female farmer, Rwempasha sector).Women's participation in vaccine delivery was also reported to be very low, "at the district or sector level, we find few females involved because we have few female veterinarians" (Female leader, Rwempasha sector)."Here there are no female veterinarians [in the field], but we have three women veterinarians working as agro-vet dealers around here [in town]" (Female veterinarian, Nyagatare District).Most informants involved in the study expected women to be clustered as end-users of the RVF vaccine in goats.however, women's access to the vaccine for their goats was reported to be low to non-existent, especially in areas where vaccination in goats is rarely done.One focus group participant noted, "I didn't know that goats can be vaccinated as well.l heard that in Rwempasha, they were vaccinating goats against a certain disease, perhaps our goats will also be vaccinated soon as well (Female FGD,.

Barriers to participation in and benefit from RVF-VVC
Women's participation in and benefits from the lVVc was impeded by the following complex and interconnected factors: 1) legislative framework and institutional practices; 2) Gender roles, cultural norms, and stereotypes; 3) Unequal access to and control over the household, public and private resources; 4) Gendered patterns of power and decision making and 5) inadequate livestock extension services (vaccination and training) among smallholder goat farmers.

Legislative framework and institutional practices
the policy and regulatory environment of Rwanda is designed to support equality between women and men.Women can be leaders, claim their rights, aspire to achieve, and participate in socio-economic development processes (MiGePROF, 2021).Gender equality and women's empowerment (GeWe) is a crucial component of all national development frameworks, including the Vision 2050, National strategy for transformation (Nst), and the sector and district strategic plans (MiGePROF, 2021).GeWe is further reflected in institutional action plans "iMihiGO" and budget allocation through Gender Budget statements (GBs).however, GBs focused more on social protection than economic and transformative interventions (GMO, 2019).this study found Nyagatare District RVF livestock vaccination indicators in the iMihiGO performance contracts of fiscal years 2019-2020 and 2020-2021, did not consider RVF vaccination in goats since the target was "Not more than 20,000 RVF vaccines for cattle in the district" (Male leader, Nyagatare District).Furthermore, the District Development strategy for 2018-2024 did not consider RVF vaccination for goats in its animal disease control strategies that require budget allocation but instead considered cattle as the only livestock of importance as far as RVF is concerned (Nyagatare District, 2018).Generally, not enough RVF vaccines were purchased to cover all or even most of the cattle in the District since the district is home to more than 400,000 cattle, goats, and sheep (Nyagatare District, 2013).

Gender roles, cultural norms, and stereotypes
the Rwandan society is male-dominated.Men are regarded as the head of the household, with final decision-making authority.current cultural norms privilege men in many ways: "At home, there are activities assigned to the wife and others to a husband however, wives have so many activities and few [are assigned] to husbands" (Female farmer, Rwempasha sector).all household maintenance and "reproductive" responsibilities, including care of livestock kept near the home, are assigned to women and girls, while men and boys are expected to generate income or succeed academically."Yes, it's the women who perform all of the household chores, and when no one is at home to graze the goat, [then] you go with them to the crop field, and they browse as you take care of your garden and crops" (Female farmer, Rwempasha).
Negative gender stereotypes (table 2) reinforce cultural norms, limit dreams, and make it hard for girls to imagine themselves as anything but obedient wives and mothers.traditional proverbs reinforce men's advantages.For example, when an idea presented is considered weak, it's called "ibitekerezo bya kigore" which means "ideas of women, " while a powerful convincing idea is referred to as "igitekerezo cya kigabo" meaning "ideas of a man." Girls are considered less intelligent compared to boys, and they are perceived as incapable of studying scientific subjects.Women are expected to rely on men for decision-making and are discouraged from speaking in front of men, "Nta nkokokazi ibika isake ihari" which means "hens do not crow where there is a rooster." Gender norms greatly impact women's opportunities for jobs in the higher levels of the Vc.scientific careers in the livestock sector, such as veterinary medicine, animal production, and vaccine importation, distribution, or delivery, are identified as appropriate for men only, leading to few women ever rising to the more lucrative and influential jobs higher in the Vc."The majority of female veterinarians get married after graduation and after having a baby, she might not be quick in case she is needed by a farmer, hence majority resorting to working as vet shop attendants near their homes rather than performing activities like livestock vaccination that require constant mobility and full-time availability to travel across communities" (Female veterinarian, Nyagatare District).From childhood, girls are taught that marriage and children are the most important things for them, while education, income generation, and careers are for boys.household chores are not shared between male and female household members but rather are seen as for females members only, even if a woman works outside the home full time.the family and social [an aggressive mannish-woman] d] Girls are less intelligent compared to boys and they are not able to study scientific subjects e] Women cannot milk cows, climb a tree, or build a house f] a woman cannot talk or make a decision in the presence of a man "Nta nkokokazi ibika isake ihari" [hens do not crow where there is a rooster] g] a man is the head of the household.even though he dies, they still use his name when referring to the household h] "Uruvuze umugore ruvuga umuhoro" [if it is the woman who speaks in the households, it results in bloodshed] I] "Ntamugore Urara Imusozi" [no woman can spend a night out of her household] J] poor ideas are "Ibitekerezo bya kigore" [ideas of women] while good ideas are "igitekerezo cy'abagabo" [ideas of men] a] a man who helps his wife with domestic activities is dominated by the woman and referred to as "inganzwa," [pushover] b] "Amafuti y'umugabo nibwo buryo bwe" [a man's wrongdoing is his way of doing things] c] men drink a lot d] men waste all their money on personal issues rather than family needs e] men must go to bars to network and mobilize resources for the household pressure to marry and reproduce increases after graduation, leaving a professional woman burdened with full responsibility for managing the home and family in addition to her job, even if her husband has the same qualifications.as seen in table 2, men who perform domestic chores such as cooking and cleaning are ridiculed, using the contemptuous term "inganzwa, " meaning "dominated or pushover." some husbands object to their wives traveling especially at night, fearing infidelity or toxic gossip, and women fear to disobey.

Access to and control over household and community resources
Our results show unequal access and control of household assets among married couples.Men and women have the same legal rights to household land and livestock "The most financially valuable assets in this area are land and livestock, especially cattle" (Female farmer, Rwimiyaga sector) however, both male and female FGD participants agreed that most resources were controlled by men.For example, during the FGD-1 sessions (Graph 1) in Rwimiyaga, women reported having less access to and control over most resources.access to social (75%) and human assets (60%) among women was rated high; however, control over all forms of capital was relatively low, even if access was high.this leads to financial and psychological dependency on their husbands.the situation is not different when it comes to ownership of and control over goats even though they are perceived to be women's livestock in the study area, "Me and my son have 3 goats, but before l make any decision concerning them, l must get permission from my husband.Sometimes he can say no, and nothing else you can do" (Female farmer, Rwimiyaga sector).little control over resources was mainly attributed Graph 1. diagram illustrating women's (FGd-1, 21 female farmers) views on their access to (Blue) and control (orange) over resources compared to men's (FGd-1, 9 male farmers) views of their access (Green) to and control (red) over the same resources.The scale of the y-axis in %.
to the expectation for women to request authorization before making decisions, especially financial ones.a woman must ask for permission from her husband for all decisions, including vaccination, treatment, sale of her goats, and use of the income generated."A woman can raise a problem that needs money [from selling a goat], but if a man doesn't agree with her, she can't it" (Female farmer, Rwimiyaga sector).access and control by women over financial assets (wages or credit) were rated the lowest, with control scoring less than 30% despite enormous public and private efforts (microfinance credit schemes and small grant facilities) to increase the availability of and access to economic opportunities among women.Women were unaware of the funding opportunities available for their economic development, much less how to access them.lack of capital or credit results in fewer resources available for women in all sectors, including livestock vaccination, effectively eliminating the chance to start a capital-intensive business such as importing livestock vaccines.the financial and legal requirements to safely import livestock vaccines or medicines are very high."You need to have significant capital to acquire cold chain equipment, funds to purchase vaccines in bulk, and acquiring the various licenses for importation" (Female veterinarian, Nyagatare district).

Patterns of power and decision making
the GoR has recognized the need for women's input into political decision-making and has some of the most far-reaching laws and policies to promote equality between men and women.For example, "at the district level, the Vice Mayor for Social Affairs must be a woman, and there are two female councilors to represent the sector at the district level" (Male leader, Rwimiyaga District).however, beliefs about the superiority of men are widespread especially in rural areas, limiting women's ability to contribute to household decision-making and control over resources.the husband is the custodian of decision-making, regardless of his actual knowledge, or potential impact on other members in the household.a male farmer from Rwempasha sector noted the traditional saying "amafuti y'umugabo nibwo buryo bwe" meaning "a man doesn't make mistakes; it is just his way of doing things."this institutionalizes male superiority and dominance.if women assert their preferences or demand participation, they risk scorn, humiliation, or violence.as a result, "women protect their behavior and reputation because they hate to be called 'Igishegabo' meaning a virago or women who acts like a man, even if it is [while asserting] their legal rights" (Male farmer, Rwempasha sector).

Inadequate livestock extension services (vaccination and training) among smallholder goat farmers
Goat health and productivity are rarely topics for extension and community outreach in Nyagatare District.the main provider of extension services in most rural communities is the sector veterinary officer and a few private veterinarians.Given the huge numbers of livestock under their care, district performance targets that prioritize cattle, and limited capacity to pay for veterinary services among smallholder farmers, veterinarians have few incentives to provide training or services to smallholder goat farmers.all small-scale goat producers involved in the study, whether male or female, claimed that public and private livestock extension services generally prioritize cattle over other livestock species.as a result, the limited resources for essential services like vaccination and training prioritize cattle over other livestock species like goats.For example, participants in the study area knew the importance of vaccines to protect the health of cattle from diseases like RVF. however, they "did not have adequate knowledge of vaccine use in goats and other small livestock" (Female leader, Rwimiyaga sector).
Overall understanding of animal health was low among all smallholders, but especially among women who have less formal education, and fewer opportunities for agricultural training.Many did not understand the difference between medicines and vaccines, "I don't know vaccines well but there are some that I know such as multivitamins, and others that we mix with food or water" (Female farmer, Rwimiyaga sector).amidst a lack of enough vaccines "Not more than 20,000 RVF vaccines were received in 2021" (Male leader, Nyagatare District), and lack of knowledge on vaccine use, women are unlikely to access or demand RVF vaccines for their goats during government-organized RVF vaccination campaigns and never become vaccine end users.

Discussion
Our study reveals that women's participation in and benefit from RVF-VVc as vaccine importers, distributors, deliverers, and end users was very low to non-existent, especially in the private sector domains of the RVF-VVc.this is mainly due to cultural norms, beliefs, and practices that disadvantage women while privileging men and their priorities (Mukamana et al., 2022).When women bear full responsibility for household management and child-rearing, they do not have time to pursue lucrative economic opportunities (ellis et al., 2006).Furthermore, women have limited access to loans needed for businesses including those in lVVcs, so qualified women are most likely to be employed by other agro-vet shop owners as attendants, which pay relatively little rather than engaging in higher Vc opportunities as importers, distributors, and deliverers.these gender-based constraints place limits on men and women, and the efficient and equitable allocation of labor, resources, and skills in ways that restrict overall access to public and private resources aimed at increasing economic growth and well-being (Rubin & Manfre, 2014;Wrigley-asante, 2011;idris, 2018).however, when women can participate in, benefit from, and control financial resources, it contributes to gender equality and improves the well-being of all family members, especially children (anna & Noortje, 2011).
the low participation of women in these vaccine input markets further restrains the national agricultural commercialization process.Rwanda's goal of agricultural transformation requires addressing women's limited control over income and resources, women's heavy workload of farm work and domestic chores, and accelerating gender transformation in the private sector landscape in Rwanda.addressing these gender inequalities could increase women's market participation and contribution to agricultural transformation in Rwanda (ingabire et al., 2018).Women's empowerment and gender transformation requires normalizing unrestricted mobility for networking and resource mobilization, division of household labor among all household members, and equal decision-making power over household resources and shared assets between husbands and wives (Bayisenge, 2010;Bikaako et al., 2022).this should be part of a national change in mindset and behavior that includes effective communication with parents to reduce pressure on girls to marry and bear children while still quite young, encourage men to respect and support their wives' visions and aspirations, and role models to motivate girls and women in pursuing and successfully running enterprises including those in the lVVcs.
historically, livestock development has prioritized cattle over other ruminant livestock species (i.e., cattle bias), with more funding for cattle than all other species combined (Mahendra & Dilip, 2021).cattle bias informs government decisions both directly and indirectly. in resource-constrained societies like in rural Rwanda, decision-makers think of goats as only for those who cannot afford cattle, thereby undermining investment in goat health (Peacock, 2005), and official statistics rarely consider them (Johnson et al., 2016).also, goats and sheep are more likely to be sold informally, so national statistics based on recorded livestock sales may miss the small ruminants and reinforce their invisibility.however, goats are relatively more important to the livelihoods of the rural poor, so investments in goat health, productivity, and sales can have a greater impact on poverty alleviation compared to cattle (ilRi, 2002).
Goat rearing is characterized by greater involvement of women compared to cattle, creating an entry point for women's empowerment, although this can change as the activity becomes more profitable (Miller et al., 2012).Future animal health delivery systems must become gender responsive so that women's as well as men's animals stay productive and contribute to household income and nutrition."Gender blind" planning for livestock vaccination campaigns ignores gender differences in power, priorities, and access to information while treating the entire household as a homogeneous unit with perfect sharing of information, resources, and benefits.this bias intensifies both gender and class inequality and limits sustainable national development (ilRi, 2002).
Gender-aware programs should recognize and address gender-based constraints by promoting a shift in the mindset of both men and women and transforming institutional norms at national, community, and household levels (MiGePROF, 2021).Women smallholder goat farmers need to be recognized as livestock producers and public services such as vaccination and extension should respond to their needs in addition to men's (Gannaway et al., 2022).Previous research on gendered barriers to RVF vaccine in Uganda and Kenya shows that addressing intra-household relations, decision-making capacity, awareness about vaccines, and proximity to the vaccination point can affect women and men similarly or differently.therefore, addressing these issues is crucial for RVF vaccine use and adoption among smallholder livestock farmers in Rwanda (Mutua et al., 2019;Donadeu et al., 2019;tukahirwa et al., 2023).

Conclusions
Women are yet to equally participate and benefit from processes, products, and services accruing from the RVF-VVc and animal health services in general.the RVF-VVc has the potential for women's economic empowerment through the importation, distribution, delivery, and regular vaccination of goats against RVF.however, this cannot be realized unless biased gender norms and beliefs against women are challenged.solutions include behavioral change communication that engages men and boys as change-makers, engendering national and local planning and evaluation frameworks like iMihiGO, improving women's awareness and access to credit facilities, and accelerating awareness about the need for gender equality among all public and private sector stakeholders.When women can access and benefit from economic opportunities at all levels of national development, they and their families and communities can support the National strategy for transformation, and adequately contribute to Rwanda's Vision 2050.

Limitations of the study
this study is not meant to show the reality of the entire country.however, it is a snapshot of stakeholder experiences and perceptions at a certain point in time.similarly, this information can be benchmarked to understand the RVF-VVc landscape in Rwanda and how to dismantle the barriers that impede women's participation in and benefit from services, products, and profits accrued from lVVcs.

Notes on contributors
Denis Majyambere is a veterinarian with an interest in one health, emerging zoonotic diseases, and social determinants of human, environmental and animal health.he is a graduate of the school of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Rwanda, and he holds a master's degree in global health delivery from the University of Global health equity in Rwanda. he is a member of the Rwanda council of Veterinary Doctors and faculty of the school of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Rwanda.
Mary Kabarungi is an assistant lecturer at the University of Rwanda-college of agriculture, animal sciences and Veterinary Medicine (UR-caVM).she is interested in agribusiness value chain development and management, market analysis, and participatory rural development approaches.
Janna M. Schurer earned her PhD in Veterinary Microbiology at the Western college of Veterinary Medicine at the University of saskatchewan in 2015.she is now an assistant Professor at the center for One health at the University of Global health equity (Rwanda).she has affiliate status in the Department of infectious Disease and Global health at the cummings school of Veterinary Medicine at tufts University (Usa).her research program focuses on One health community-based approaches to investigating and mitigating Neglected tropical Diseases.
Liberata Mukamana has a PhD in gender from Makerere University.she has 12 years of experience teaching at the University of Rwanda.she teaches undergraduate economics courses and postgraduate gender courses.her research interests include the economic empowerment of women, sustainable women's small-scale businesses, access to and control over microfinance loan services, improving the productivity of women's livestock, the gendered division of labor, and its impact on women's involvement in income-generating activities.
Fidel Niyitanga is an associate professor at the University of Rwanda college of agriculture, animal sciences and Veterinary Medicine (UR-caVM).his interests include agricultural production economics, policies and strategies, and small and medium enterprise (sMe) development in agricultural value chains and markets.
Beth Miller is a veterinarian with 35 years of experience integrating animal health and women's empowerment in international development.she is the owner and ceO of Miller agricultural consulting, established in 2002, anda 1986 graduate of louisiana state University school of Veterinary Medicine in the Usa.she has worked as a livestock producer, a field veterinarian, the director of heifer international's Gender Program, and a consultant for FaO, iFaD, UsaiD, and other development partners.Dr. Miller was elected President of the international Goat association in 2016.she received the Vet2011 award in recognition of extraordinary efforts to promote international cooperation through Veterinary Medicine, and the 2004 Women in livestock Development (WilD) award for "Meritorious Support of Women Livestock Keepers Around the World, " presented by heifer international.
Hellen Amuguni is an associate professor in the Department of infectious Disease and Global health, cummings school of Veterinary Medicine, tufts University.she holds a Ph.D. in infectious Diseases from tufts University, cummings school of Veterinary Medicine, Usa, with more than 20 years of experience in development as an infectious disease, gender, and One health specialist.she is also the Principal investigator of the iDRc shevax + grant that focuses on women's empowerment and agency in the livestock vaccine value chain, and the director of the UsaiD stOP spillover project.her research interests include studying gender inequities in human and animal health programs, One health, and the risks and impacts of infectious diseases on sex and gender, including cOViD-19.she is also a member of the infectious Disease society of america and the Kenya Veterinary association.

Legal, policy, and regulatory framework RVF vaccine manufacturing and importation
Rwanda imported all livestock vaccines, including RVF, as of 2021 due to limited investment in livestock vaccine production.securing and distributing the RVF vaccine in Nyagatare District is a collaborative effort between the District Directorate for animal Resources and the Rwanda agricultural Board [RaB] as designated by law No 54/2008 of 10/09/2008 (

Table 2 .
Gender stereotypes about women and men in rwimiyaga and rwempasha Sectors, nyagatare 2021.