The Sociohistorical Challenges to the Development of Women’s Football in Poland

Abstract Women’s football is gaining popularity, with more and more girls and women participating in the sport every year around the world, particularly in Europe. While the increase in participation is most noticeable in Western Europe, it is more gradual in Eastern Europe, as in Poland. A number of research studies that link women’s participation in sports to gender issues are calling into question the reasons and conditions for this growth. As a result, the issues at stake extend beyond sports practice. They lead to a parallel examination of the socio-political context (which integrates political, institutional, social, and cultural dimensions) and the evolution of women’s conditions in general and in sports, especially football. Women’s football in Poland developed slowly as a result of the general situation of women in the country as well as the influence of the country’s political situation, Catholic indoctrination, and the dominant traditionalism.

development of this sport in various national socio-political contexts. 7Gender equality has been identified as a key marker of the development and growth of women's sports, especially football, in different nations.
Poland is thus among the European countries where gender equality has yet to meet the European Union (EU) standards on women's rights. 8In recent times, the gender gap in equal opportunities has widened considerably.There has been a clear return to traditionalism ever since the far right came to power in 2015. 9Politicians from the ruling party Prawo i Sprawiedliwość (Law and Justice) publicly discuss the conventional family model, in which women are relegated to the roles of mother and wife. 10In Poland, women are seen as subordinate to men and are expected to look after the home and children. 11This image of women is further reinforced by the Polish Catholic Church, which works closely with those in authority. 12Political decisions, as well as the persistence of stereotypes that define and reinforce the roles of men and women, underline gender inequality in Poland. 13The numerous street protests against the tightening of the abortion law (430,000 people demonstrated in 410 Polish cities in October 2020 and women's strikes took place in 79 Polish cities in November 2021) indicate the seriousness of the issue of gender inequality in Poland. 14he decisions of politicians are leading the country and women's rights in a completely different path from that of the EU community.Poland's far-right policies are not improving women's equality in sport, especially when it comes to football, which significantly reduces its popularity.
In some respects, the situation of Poland resembles that of Ireland, where conservatism was mixed with Catholicism.In Ireland, married women were prohibited from working until the 1970s, and there was an absolute ban on abortion until 2018, which the Polish government is now trying to implement. 15Indeed, as in Poland, the church and the state have long influenced gender equality policies in Ireland. 16Many policies have advanced women's rights, including the abortion right. 17Politicians are also trying to change the rights that women have gained in Poland. 18Between the abortion right that falls short of satisfying all women in Ireland and the suppression of this right in Poland, the persistence of a moral order linked to the church remains omnipresent. 19However, this moral order alone does not seem to explain the opposition to certain women's rights or their full access to certain practices.The degree of gender equality in countries and the commitment to proactive policies for women's rights appear to have an impact on women's investment in different contexts such as sports.For instance, through its commitments at the European level and beyond, Ireland is trying to combat gender pay inequalities.It is one of the few countries to implement equal pay for female and male players since the decision of the Irish Football Association in August 2021. 20Governments and the type of political and even religious ideologies that may accompany them have a role in the favourable evolution of women's rights, even though they are not the only markers of women's place in society in general and in sports in particular. 21oland differs from other European countries in this oppressive and heteronormative character, homogenization of masculinity and unwillingness to change. 22According to Connell's theory, the society has a clear gender order, with male hegemony demonstrating the asymmetry between the sexes in the patriarchal gender order. 23In a place where women's roles are reduced to catering for men's needs and performing domestic duties, it is extremely difficult for female players who do not fit into this gender order to play sport and even more difficult to play the 'men's game' and has the effect of impeding the development of women's football.The same is true for all top decision-making positions in sports federations, where female participation in 2015 averaged 14 per cent in EU Member States, ranging from 3 per cent in Poland to 43 per cent in Sweden. 24These figures clearly show the differences between Poland and the rest of Europe, especially in the north and west.However, studies on Eastern European countries are scarce, let alone comparisons with Western or Northern European countries, where women's football has risen to prominence.
The history of Polish sports, including women's participation in sport, has expanded substantially over the past 20 years. 25However, this scholarship has not addressed the status of women and the issue of women's emancipation and limitations in detail.Some sociological sport studies and current studies on gender theory and sports policy, with a particular focus on women's football, have started to appear recently. 26Yet, these works still have not considered the development of women's football in Poland in relation to the socio-political context that prevailed and continues to exist in the country.
Although the feminist movements of Western Europe worked for equality and seemed to extend to Poland also, in reality patriarchalism and Catholic indoctrination limited the possibility of the development of women's football.Women's soccer in Poland has not developed evenly; it was not a sport that could be a symbol of Soviet propaganda, and when authorities realized that women's soccer could serve propaganda, communism collapsed.With the change of the political system in Poland, the management of women's soccer changed, and only the last decades have brought noticeable progress in this area.However, the lower popularity and much slower development of women's soccer in Poland than in Western European countries is still noticeable as a result of the political situation, Catholic indoctrination, and the dominant traditionalism, as well as the historical situation of Polish women over the last century.

Political Power and the Place of Women in Sports in Poland
One of the elements that influence and slow down the development of women's sports, especially men's sports played by women, including women's football, is politics.Three aspects in particular impact this development: relationship with sports, sports policy and politics in a broad sense.The first aspect, the relationship between sport and politics (polity), indicates the place that the State accords to sport and its participants.The second, sports policy, can be public, associative or private.The third, politics in the broad sense, indicates the political or socio-economic stakes of sports.Due to political conditions, the formal feminist movement in Poland did not flourish as in other European countries, which had a significant impact on the development of women's sports, particularly women's football.
The development of sports is linked to the political activities of individual states. 27oliticians also play a role in changing the development of sports by defining goals and tasks, creating opportunities for development and managing finances.Politics has always had an impact on sports, either directly or indirectly influencing the creation of specific sports or the implementation of sports events.The policies and funding priorities set by government officials and institutions reflect political differences and the influence of different groups.Fund allocation tends to favour the most privileged groups whose objectives align with the ideological orientations of government officials. 28Elias and Dunning make a connection between political power and the field of sports. 29In this context, sport is a sociological, historical and political object.Max Weber defines politics as a type of human activity that aims to shape social life through certain ideas and values, aspirations and power-based aspirations.Power and politics are thus linked.Political power refers to relations of domination based on existing rules established by larger or smaller groups in different political systems.Thus, political power is situated both at the level of the state, which has the ability to impose social goals, through various means including violence and physical and psychological coercion, and at the level of citizens.It is therefore considered here in a broad and complex sense taking into account, among others, the power of local, national, international and religious institutions, political parties, social movements (such as the feminist movement), and unions.
According to Weber, political power is based on the legitimacy through which authority is expressed, which can take different forms. 30Authority is a type of social relationship capable of executing the will of those in power.On the one hand, the essence of these relationships will be defined by relationships based on command, direction, obedience and subordination.Michel Foucault states that power is the dynamic basis of all social interactions and practices, which allows the subjectivity of the participants to be constituted.Contested positions of power in different parts of the social space combine to form a flexible, centreless system that enslaves all individuals subject to it without exception.Thus, Foucault elevates the notion of power to a supreme, almost metaphysical principle that explains all social practices requiring control, surveillance and cooperation. 31However, the systems of political power organization and the excesses observed in some countries call into question part of this principle and its limits, particularly with regard to cooperation.
The example of Poland, which in the nineteenth century was ruled by three superpowers -Russia, Prussia and Austria-Hungary -is a clear illustration of how a country's situation and politics can affect the development of sports.Poland did not exist, and there was a restriction on any social and cultural development.Sports and physical education developed particularly during the Austrian partition, when Galicia was autonomous. 32The first sports clubs, including men's football teams, were formed in the autonomous cities of Krakow and Lvov. 33Sports and sports clubs developed considerably after the First World War and the restoration of independence, with the formation of a new political system being the most pressing issue for the country at the time.The interwar period saw significant achievements in physical education, particularly the development of children and young people, whose health had deteriorated due to divisions and war.In addition, the authorities of the time viewed physical education as part of a defence preparedness programme for citizens to defend the country in the event of future war.Sports were also supported by the government and by Józef Piłsudski, who was fascinated by sports. 34As a result, Poles formed many sports teams, clubs and associations and competed in international competitions.The interwar period also saw the global emancipation of women's athletics, and women's achievements were closely observed, including the World Women's Games, which contributed to the approval of women's athletics by the members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF). 35Polish women athletes achieved great success, with Halina Konopacka winning the first Olympic gold medal for Poland in Amsterdam in 1928. 36his certainly facilitated the further development of women's athletics.However, the development of women's sport did not include women's football.
After the Second World War, Poland's political system underwent changes.Between 1949 and 1989, the country was a Soviet-influenced sovereign state.The communist party was in power, and the Polish army was under the command of the Soviet army.The idea of the communist revolution gave rise to the concept of the communist state.Communism was founded on a set of views that advocated the complete abolition of social oppression, postulating universality, social justice and equality, as well as the creation of a classless society based on the absence of private property, social control of the economy, social ownership of the means of production and a fair distribution of wealth.These postulates applied to all areas of social life.In general, communism is considered a political system where communist parties hold power, as was the case in Poland after the Second World War.Poland had a one-party dictatorship with an undemocratic system that included various forms of repression.The regime violated basic human rights and deprived citizens of the freedom of speech, press, opinion, religion and association.The government suppressed social protests against the lack of freedom or worsening economy by force, often resulting in the death of the protesters.In order to prevent information from reaching the media, the regime denied freedom of expression and introduced censorship.Press releases and television and radio broadcasts contained false, misleading and propagandistic information.Egalitarianism, created in accordance with the communist system, was only apparent.Party members dominated and held power in the state, women were subordinate to men and patriarchy still existed.All the novelties of 'Western' Europe could not be transferred and consolidated in Polish society, and the feminist movement could not count on the support of the party authorities in terms of equal rights for women. 37However, the communists made some references to the situation of women in communist countries.They thought that the oppression of women stemmed from their association with production and treated the feminist question marginally, believing that the abolition of class oppression would result in the disappearance of gender inequality.Furthermore, the change in family situation and the search for employment outside the village, as well as in factories, represented the socialist concept of women's emancipation.In the name of socialist equality, women were forced into lower-paying jobs and were burdened by work and household chores, including 'queuing for hours for meagre foodstuffs' . 38lthough the image of the working woman was evolving, masculinized women were still perceived as the 'quintessential Soviet attack on Polish national identity' and the symbol became a 'permanent threat to the natural order of things' used to emphasize patriotism. 39In the absence of independent feminist movements in Poland, the discourse on women's roles was not taken over by sociologists, who were compelled by authority to examine women in the family setting.As a result, sociological research excluded the category of gender.In the 1980s, when the West sought gender equality, Poland reinforced traditional norms with the introduction of maternity benefits and the mass departure of women from the labour market. 40The communists had their own view of physical culture and ignored any discussion of women's football and its development.Marxist ideology considered physical culture an element of the general educational system, intended to indoctrinate the worldview of young people, to instil in them a need for success in which team victories would compensate for a lack of social, economic or political success, and to promote the superiority of the socialist system over the capitalist system.The authorities tried to take full control of the sports world, and the participation of Polish athletes in international events was supposed to persuade Western public opinion of the country's normalization. 41Although sport was associated with communism propaganda and women were becoming more visible in 'women's' sport, the lack of a formal feminist movement in Poland resulted in the slow down and lack of visibility of women in many sports, including football.Despite the high level of women's activity in various fields during the interwar period, feminist activism in Poland under communism questioned patriarchal assumptions and developed independently, on the margins of the underground opposition.The feminist movement emerged officially only after 1989 with the fall of communism. 42he apparent lack of these movements during the Polish People's Republic does not imply that women did not fight for their rights. 43Women's football was certainly not the most important postulate of women fighting for equality.
The situation in the west of Europe was different.The first wave of women's emancipation occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century, a period of significant socio-cultural changes and the 'entry' of women into male spaces, such as school, the labour market, entertainment and politics. 44During this time, women mainly fought for their family rights, and their economic conditions improved considerably.In Poland, the first wave of women's emancipation occurred after the restoration of independence, as women were already granted voting rights in 1918, in accordance with the law that 'all citizens of the state, regardless of sex, are voters in the Sejm' and 'all citizens of the state with an active right to vote are voters in the Sejm' . 45Major changes also took place in the field of sports.At the end of the nineteenth century, the founder of the modern Olympic Games, Pierre de Coubertin, banned women's participation in the event.He believed that 'women's sport is contrary to the laws of nature' , which was due to the social perception of women's physical activity at the time.This prohibition gradually weakened to the point where a significant number of women participated in the Games at the end of the inter-war period.The First World War also helped the entry of women into the male sphere.During the war, women proved that they were predisposed to engage in 'masculine' activities. 46Their commitment and determination persuaded society that sports should not be reserved for men.The development of women's sports during the interwar period can be described as 'sports feminism' , but it was mainly non-contact sports not classified as 'men`s' sports, thus slowing the development of women's football.
After the Second World War, conditions in Poland, including the forced transformation of roles during the war, the increase in women's employment and the ideology of gender equality, favoured changes regarding the social and cultural role of women.However, the traditional division between male and female roles in Poland was not challenged. 47The ruling party, despite support for mass employment and women's political activism, emphasized the importance of motherhood and the unique role of them in the private sphere.The communists regraded traditional women's tasks as crucial for social stability and post-war reconstruction.The second wave of feminism began in the 1960s and lasted until the late 1970s when it became clear that women continued to face discrimination in comparison to men and that all previous efforts to achieve equality had been unsuccessful.The government introduced legal changes, but they were only formal and did not result in any real modifications.Women identified the patriarchal nature of the social as a source of discrimination.However, the movement for women's participation in sports slowly gained momentum, particularly in the West, where feminists sought to increase women's access to sports and raise the profile of women's sports.Equal opportunity was a popular concept at the time, which reflected in the slogan 'catching up with the men' . 48Women considered sport as one of the many ways to gain rights in the modern world.Due to its spectacular nature, sport proved to be an ideal arena for the expression of femininity, resulting in a bold move towards new sports competitions. 49ressure from women and the feminist movement forced sports associations and governments in many European countries and the United States to pass legislation on gender equality in sports. 50uring the period of the Polish People's Republic (1952-1989), the Catholic Church functioned in spite of the dominant socialist system, and society used it as a springboard for party propaganda.The clergy's statements and opinions became a paradigm for society.An excerpt from a 1962 academic article by theologian Feliks Bednarski shows how church circles opposed women's participation in sports, especially men's sports: 'Girls should not be allowed to blindly imitate male physical exercises because of their distinct physical and mental systems, nor should they be allowed to distort their moral character' . 51This approach significantly slowed down women's participation in 'men`s' sport, including women's football.Nonetheless, in general the Cold War fostered the development of women's sports, especially in the Eastern Bloc countries but not women`s football.Sport became part of the political struggle, with Eastern European states viewing sporting victory as proof of state power and the superiority of socialist ideology and treating sportsmen as political tools who thus became easy targets for manipulation.The increased participation of women in sports was their attempt to dispel some of the stereotypes about women's roles in society. 52omen became more visible in international events and society treated them as national heroes.As a result, more women began to compete and the state invested significantly in women's sports. 53In fact, as Nameeta Mathur writes, sportswomen 'made significant contributions to the feminist goals of self-awareness and self-authorization, albeit within the boundaries of a still patriarchal nationalist agenda' . 54Women's sport developed, but only those sports fully acceptable to the regime and not threatening the role of women in the socialist state.The communists marginalized and ignored other sports, including women's football.
In Western Europe, the situation was slightly different with significant changes in morality in the 1960s.New customs concerning body practices, including physical activity, became widespread as part of the care of one's appearance and figure, which became both a duty and a source of pleasure. 55In the years that followed, the world witnessed the third wave of feminism, which drew attention to previously neglected issues, such as ethnicity, race, religion and economic divisions, until the contemporary fourth wave, which primarily focused on violence and sexual abuse against women and was associated with the use of social media.Unfortunately, the feminist movement in Poland has always been preoccupied with other 'more important' issues than sports, and the topic of gender equality in sports received no attention.Although the official feminist movement did not explicitly or directly address the issue of women's sports, the work of various pioneers, and the efforts of all those women who faced hostility, must be reconsidered. 56It is indeed a form of feminist commitment as demonstrated by the participation of these women in a sporting arena that was hostile to them, as well as the explicit commitment of certain pioneers such as Alice Milliat in France. 57Their very presence in this space was a political act.They were forerunners who paved the way for future generations. 58Indeed, this act was part of a certain form of struggle, albeit not collective, for the recognition of sportswomen.This struggle cannot be separated from the evolution of football over time because one of the factors that slowed down the development of women's football in Poland was the lack of a strong feminist movement.Although Poland's political situation was conducive to the development of women's sport, which became a tool of socialist propaganda, women's football had no chance of rapid development because it was reserved for men.It was a discipline that was underrated by both the socialist system, patriarchalism and religion.

Establishment of Women's Football in Poland
Although the emancipation of women's football began at the end of the nineteenth century in Europe, it started much later in Poland.The political situation of the country was difficult at the time.First, partitions kept the country under the influence of three different powers from 1795 to 1918.Although the Poles regained their independence after the First World War, the interwar period was not peaceful and brought many political and socio-cultural changes that affected the lack of development of women's football in Poland.The Polish People's Republic period was marked by the slow development of women's football, with the first official women's matches and the introduction of a league system.These systematic progressive changes continued in subsequent years, but as a result of various factors, development was delayed.
Women's football increased in popularity in Western Europe from its inception in the late nineteenth century through the interwar period.Indeed, the first international women's football match in Europe took place on May 9, 1881, between England and Scotland, with Scotland winning by 3-0.Following a series of showcase matches in the 1880s, the first major women's football club, the British Ladies Football Club, was formed in 1895 in the UK, when interest in the sport had grown considerably. 59he club's first president was Lady Florence Dixie, who was an aristocrat, traveller, writer and feminist.The club played over 100 matches, and later, when Mrs. Graham's Eleven became president, the club played about 20 matches, which were attended by thousands of spectators, both men and women. 60During the First World War, when women's sports were at their peak in popularity, matches were held to raise funds for charity.The British women's team's trip to Paris for a match in 1920, which was attended by 22,000 fans, also aided the development of women's football.Pfister indicated that there were about 150 women's football teams in 1921. 61Many European countries, including France, Germany and Austria, saw the development of women's football, especially after the First World War. 62However, due to poor economic conditions and the declining importance of charity matches, the Football Association banned women's football in England in December 1921.The association authorities explained that they could not afford to fund charity work and that football in general was not suitable for women because it was 'too vigorous' . 63The ban was in effect until the late 1960s. 64In the 1930s, women in France were heavily criticized for playing football, and as a result, the number of football matches decreased and the sport was suspended altogether. 65n contrast to the UK and France, women`s football was not popular in Poland during the interwar period mainly due to political factors influencing the social life of Poles.After Poland regained its independence after 123 years of partition, the most pressing issue at the time was the reconstruction and development of the state.Sport was also developing, sports associations were established and the Polish Olympic Committee was born; however, women's football was the last social need to be met, while working on the new states and other issues seemed more important.The aggression of the Soviet armies compelled Poland to fight again for its independence.The war between Poland and the Soviet Union lasted from 1919 to 1921, and the Soviet army attacked so frequently that all those who could not fight, including women, joined the defence. 66During this time, when women's football was the most popular in Europe, Polish women went to war.Indeed, the 'wave' of popularity of women's football that swept across Europe, starting with the UK and then France, 'bounced' off the newly demarcated borders of the Second Polish Republic and did not reach the general public.There is, however, a reference to the formation of a women's football team TS Unia in Poznań in the sports press of 1921, and KS Zorza a year later, but neither team played any matches and soon disbanded. 67This brief episode of football team formation did not affect the development of women's football. 68everal factors inhibited the development of football in Poland, one of which was the impact of the activities of sports activists.During the interwar period, sports activists considered football to be an unsuitable sport for girls and women.The ban on women's football in Western Europe undoubtedly reinforced this belief.In addition, the Polish educational authorities passed a law prohibiting schoolchildren from playing football in sports club. 69Women's football was unlikely to develop in the interwar period due to the marginalization of the sport and the difficulty of access for schoolchildren.Magazines published in Poland between the wars clearly indicate that women's football was deemed unsuitable for women.Women were not supposed to play this 'rough' sport.According to the author of a 1925 text, 'the physique of women entails a particularly careful choice among the available categories of sport.Also, mental conditions, their sensitivity and feelings must be considered, which argues against women playing football' . 70In a newspaper interview, Wiktor Junosza said that 'participation in men's sports would lead to the loss of feminine attributes such as subtlety and finesse' . 71He also pointed out that some sports, such as football, could not be played by women. 72n 1928 Warsaw hosted the first Congress of Physical Education and Women's Sport, whose participants made many demands to restrict women's access to various sports, including football.Juliusz Ulrych, President of the Union of Polish Sports Associations and Director of the National Office for Physical Education and Military Training, during this meeting said: It is a women's issue -it is the duty of the women who have come here to serve the idea of physical education by laying the foundations of an independent and creative women's movement for sport and physical education.You must proceed, ladies, not to imitate men […] but to develop your own methods and programmes which take as their starting point sexual identity and physical abilities.In accordance with this principle, the idea of women's presence in sports associations should be further promoted and the need for the independence and specificity of the women's sports movement should be stressed.You will undoubtedly encounter many obstacles and difficulties on your way.You must overcome them and move forward.The motto of a sportsperson is effort.Only through struggle can you achieve your goals.I wish you useful and fruitful deliberations, and I wish you to play a role in the great work of the renaissance, of the physical nation, as Polish women deserve. 73ring the Congress, Doctor Zofia Zabawska-Domosłowska stressed that the popularization of women's sports in Poland should not be an imitation of men's sports, as in some other countries, but rather follow its own path based on the knowledge of women's physical and psychological characteristics. 74First and foremost, she argued, it was necessary to identify the sports disciplines appropriate for women, followed by the conditions of the sports competition in specific disciplines (choice of competition, rules of the game, type of equipment).It was also important to choose the method of assessing physical effort, with more emphasis on technical efficiency and 'beauty factors' and less emphasis, in the case of men, on the size of the result, especially 'length, height, and speed' .Therefore, sports in which the outcome is primarily controlled by the direct use of force, as well as those involving direct impact and 'causing severe bodily shock' or 'affecting the female body' , should not be preferred by women.According to Dr Zabawska-Domosłowska, these sports included weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, rugby, football, ice hockey, basketball, water polo, ski jumping, jumping from a water tower, cycling and horse racing.The interwar period was a time when various sports emerged yet with not enough knowledge about them, thus making it inconceivable at the time that women could play many of the sports they play nowadays.
The sports press also criticized women's football in the interwar period.In 1929, the sports journal Start stated: 'There is no greater sporting absurdity than women playing football' . 75The author of the article also pointed out that women's football originated in England during the war, when Londoners 'eager for entertainment' watched women's performances. 76Women's teams also formed later in France and Belgium when there was a rivalry between these two countries: 'Experts say that women's football has made great progress in recent times and that women's teams play fairly, without brutality or foul play' . 77In the interwar magazine Start, which was devoted to women's sports, one writer noted that women were creating a separate 'special type of ball' for themselves. 78The author also noted that this feminist football is accepted, while men's football is aggressive and unsuitable for women. 79The importance of women's football was questioned in the two decades that followed the war.According to some authors, training could not harm women, but forced marriages could. 80Although Polish legislation allowed women to vote as early as 1918 and actively participate in the war between 1919 and 1921, Polish women were not allowed to play football during the interwar period. 81Despite indications of the emergence of women's teams and discussions on the subject, women's football did not emerge in Poland during this period, and women were only allowed to practise other 'less masculine' sports.
Women's sports began to develop after the Second World War.At the beginning of the period of the Polish People's Republic, Jadwiga Jędrzejowska, one of Poland's most successful tennis players, competed in Grand Slam tournaments from 1945.A female volleyball player first competed in the European Championships in 1949, and Helena Rakoczy achieved success in gymnastics in the late 1940s. 82Women's football emerged much later because it was neither a propaganda sport nor a political objective.Sports were developing, accepted by the party and practised by women who were members of various organizations influenced and governed by the state. 83The People's Republic of Poland encouraged the development of women's sports with an aim of controlling not only women but also women's sporting achievements, which, given the prevailing political, economic, social and cultural conditions, were incredibly successful on the international stage.The authorities took advantage of the image and the presumed support of female athletes for the system in the country.
In Poland, the development of women's sports was not conducive to the development of women's football even though some clubs established women's football sections in the late 1950s.The authorities' lack of interest in women's football, the lack of training and the small number of female players hampered the formation of football teams.The football matches 'played by women were only showcase matches' . 84oreover, the Polish Football Association (Polski Związek Piłki Nożnej, PZPN) was revived only after 1956, when sports clubs were reactivated following the end of the Stalinist period, by which time the authorities had acquired a monopoly on sports and physical culture in general and had expelled and demoted activists, coaches and instructors.On the wave of democratization of social life, the Polish Football Association became dynamic and soon established international contacts.
Even with these challenges, women's football emerged in the 1950s and 1960s.Women's teams formed in clubs in large cities: Kolejarz in Katowice, Czarni in Szczecin, Korona in Krakow, Widzew in Lodz, Kolejarz in Opole, Ślęza in Wrocław and Polonia in Warsaw.The first match between Katowice and Szczecin was filmed and aired in theatres. 85Women's football attracted the interest of the public, and brief mentions about the sport began to appear in the press. 86One local newspaper reported on the formation of the 'first women's eleven-a-side football team' , emphasizing that the pioneers were handball players.This fact confirms that women's football was initially part of sports training, with players participating in other sports. 87he press also noted that women's football is 'still unknown in our country' but is a popular sport in Western Europe. 88The authors of press articles sometimes easily criticized and absurdly explained women's football, claiming that it requires a lot of effort and is beyond the capacity of women.They also added that fast jumps and turns cause congestion of the reproductive organs and can lead to serious illnesses, including breast cancer. 89Newspaper articles stressed that women's football is a 'circus' , not a sport. 90Due to the difficulties in practising football, sports activists demanded a ban on women's football matches.In their view, football was supposed to be a sport reserved for men. 91Sports activists also sanctioned some female athletes for playing football.Zdzislawa Majewska, the 15-year-old Polish 800 m junior champion athlete and eighth on the Polish senior women's list, had been banned from sport for a year for taking part in a football match instead of competing for Olympic qualification. 92Another example of male hegemony and the blocking of women from playing football was the abolition of women's sections in sports clubs, with the supposed explanation of financial losses, which contradicted the description of women's matches in the press, whose stories indicated that women's matches were profitable due to the high public interest, and that fans were willing to pay admission to these events. 93espite the unfavourable stance of sports activists regarding women's football in the 1970s, the strong influence of the international success of the men's national football team winning the gold medal at the 1972 Olympic Games, third place at the 1974 FIFA World Championships, and the silver medal 1976 Olympic Games made women more willing to try their skills at football. 94This was not a socialist-inspired initiative but rather an initiative of the women themselves. 95The press received and published many letters asking for the creation of women's teams.One young women's footballer complained that they had no place to play: 'We would like to play matches, but we have nobody to play with' , and another pointed out that the sport is popular abroad but not in Poland: 'I console myself with the fact that with time maybe women's football teams will be created in Poland' . 96Towarzystwo Krzewienia Kultury Fizycznej (TKKF), the association which set up local women's teams and popularized mass sport, contributed significantly to the development of football in Poland. 97In addition, many teams formed at public workplaces.
Despite this activity for the development of women's football, change progressed slowly.Many preliminary women's games were held before the men's competition on national holidays, such as Labour Day on May 1 and the Polish National Day of Rebirth on July 22. 98 Women who played football either worked or attended vocational schools.The first official women's football tournament was held in Rzeszów in 1971, and in 1973 the first official women's football team, Checz Gdynia, was formed with Roman Bieszke as a coach. 99The Polish players won third place in the World Cup held in West Germany and the Polish team also finished third in the tournament, contributing to the development of women's football.Over the years, more teams formed in other cities. 100 Sometimes the press published articles on the emancipation of women in sports: Sport was one of the first areas of life to be attacked by fit emancipators.And with what results.Today, not only do women play volleyball, dance on ice, run or throw the discus no worse than their male counterparts, but they also appear on ski jumps, play football, fight … in the ring (although this seems 'excessive' to the undersigned).At first […] it was difficult to overcome the prejudices of the big-hearted peasants, for whom a girl in shorts was often 'from hell' , while our girls, with innate grace and persistence, overcame obstacle after obstacle on the road to sports to achieve the fame of film superstars.Men spoke of them with a wink, women with envy. 101is emancipation of women in sports, along with the help of the TKKF and the provincial councils, resulted in the formation of several women's teams through a national competition, TKKF and PZPN Main Board Cup, which was held in 1976 with 160 teams and demonstrated the popularity of women's football. 102t the turn of the 1970s and 1980s, Polish women's football was reborn, with the formation of new clubs.This was a period when the press influenced those in power and made a significant contribution to the formation of local teams, as they responded enthusiastically and passed on to local authorities requests from readers to establish teams to train women. 103In 1978, eight teams created an unofficial football league: Checz Gdynia, Czarni Sosnowiec, Karlinki Jaworzyna Śląska, Walter Radom, Okęcie Warszawa, Jawor Skarszewy, Wedel Płońsk and Garbarnia Kraków. 104Despite the formation of teams, they were few in number and there was a significant disparity with Western countries, including East Germany, as evidenced by the fact that LKS Płońsk from the Szczecin region struggled to compete with players from the East due to the small number of teams in Poland. 105Furthermore, the teams set up were mainly by the TKKF association, not a central directed policy.If the establishment of women's football teams had been in line with Soviet political propaganda, women's teams would have been formed in every village.In the 1970s, neither communist propaganda nor patriarchalism was conducive to the development of women's football.
Finally, it was only in 1979 that the inclusion of women's football to a national organization, the General Committee of Physical Culture and Sports (Główny Komitet Kultury Fizycznej i Sportu, GKKFiS), led to the visible development of this sport in Poland.From 1980 onwards there would be two Polish league groups (south and north), and the first women's league is still divided geographically.Eleven teams participated in the first competition, and the championship was decided by a match between the winners of the two groups after two rounds in spring and autumn. 106n 1985 the Polish Football Association finally incorporated women's football into its oversight, and GKKFiS registered women's football as a sport played in Poland. 107eanwhile, international matches began taking place, and the Polish Football Association established an official Polish women's football team in 1981. 108The team's first match was against Sokol Ostrava on June 14, 1981, and the first official international match was against Italy and played in Catania, Italy, on June 27, 1981.In the 1980s, women played indoor football to commemorate the liberation of cities or for the President's or Governor's Cup, and from 1981 onwards, the Polish Indoor Championships included women's football amongst the competitions. 109Women also played matches before men's sporting events, as exemplified by the match between the Polish men's national team and West German players held in 1981 in Chorzów. 110n 1982, the PZPN and the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) agreed on the Polish championship, the Polish indoor championship and the Polish cup. 111hree years later, the PZPN established the Women's Football Committee with 12 members. 112Since 1985, women's teams have participated in the Polish Cup.
However, these sporting successes did not continue in the immediate aftermath of the political changes in 1989 even as the fall of communism in Poland influenced Polish sport.After 1989, the country's international representation lost its ideological connotation, and the authorities were no longer concerned with demonstrating state power, as evidenced by the sponsorship of sport, including women's sports.Due to its commercialization, sport became subject to market laws, and the government no longer funded unprofitable activities.Before 1989 there were 40 women's football clubs in Poland, but after the change in the financial system in 1991 only 13 remained. 113The collapse of state-owned workplaces led to the dismantling of the TKKF teams and centres which resulted in the discontinuation of most Polish clubs.The early 1990s thus provided the biggest crisis in the development of Polish women's football.
The situation soon improved, with women's football expanded at the turn of the century.A key role in the further development of women's football was the formation of student sports clubs (Uczniowski Klub Sportowy, UKS) created from 1994.These clubs initiated the formation of mini football teams in primary schools, parishes and housing estate clubs, with 20 per cent being girls' teams.The development of women's football happened as a result of the funding of the sport without gender divisions, and the implementation of multi-level competitions, which has increased interest in the game among girls. 114In addition, during this period, sports clubs began to attract private sponsors and support from local and city council budgets, which provided opportunities for club funding.In 2000 the Polish Football Association established in Warsaw the Women's Football Commission.Furthermore in 2005, the Ekstraliga and leagues I and II integrated the women's competition and introduced the third league with eight groups in 2012. 115The greatest success of Polish women's football to date was winning the 2013 UEFA Women`s Under-17, but PZPN inaction meant that this championship did not lead to more success or promotion of women's football.In 2019, the PZPN started to introduce reforms in women's football which led to the professionalization of the sport in Poland.Unfortunately, several teams, including those in the top league, lost their positions in the league and some ceased to exist.
Both the history of women and the political system in Poland have made great contributions to the state of sport in the country, particularly women's sports.Women's football thus swings between some advances and obstacles that women still face in Polish society, which has had the effect of slowing down the development of women's football in Poland compared to other countries.The image of women's football today has been influenced by the events of the last 100 years.The heavy weight of patriarchalism, the communist regime and Catholic indoctrination and, especially, the male hegemony and the usurpation of football, contributed to the extreme difficulty of raising women's football in Poland to the European level.

Prospects for the Development of Women's Football in Poland
Women's football is becoming more popular around the world, and Europe has become the sporting standard of the players.According to UEFA, there were 112,000 registered female players in the late 1970s, and by 2017 the organization had over 1,365,000 women members. 116Despite this growth and the growing interest of women in football, the sport still does not have the same level of recognition in most countries even though men's football has a central place.Thus, while football is one of the most popular sports in Poland, the development of women's football in the country has lagged behind that of other European countries.Football is still run by men in Poland, as evidenced by the fact that the Women's Football Committee of the Polish Football Association is composed of 16 men and only one woman.Women's football remains under-publicized in the global media, although the success of the Women's European Championships in 2022 and the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup have helped correct that.
The relationship between the position of women in each country and the development of women's football is clear.Parallels can be drawn with issues such as equal pay for men and women.In Poland, this equality is still far from realization.Resistance and barriers are historically embedded in the values and experiences of sportspersons, which are marked by brutality, violence and physical domination, as well as other characteristics not associated with weak and socially vulnerable women.Thus, in the context of the feminization of different spheres of life, sports seem to be one of the key areas in which male domination and hegemony are manifested.Although feminist movements have not directly addressed this issue, female pioneers have played an important role in the development of women's sports in general, and women football in particular.Although Western European countries are a source of inspiration for women's football, particularly through the transfer of Polish players, a real comparison with Poland is difficult due to the historical and existing power systems.The development of women's football was considerably slower in Poland due to the country's historical conditions that prevented the existence of women's football during the rebirth of the Polish state as well as during the interwar period and later, when sport was run by communists and any tendencies 'coming from the West' were rejected and questioned.Furthermore, the family model and the associated division of roles have had a strong impact within the country.The current situation of women and conservative politics may continue to delay the development of women's sports, especially football, significantly.If football is still viewed as a male sport based on traditional values with women subordinated to men and male hegemony clearly evident, there will be no room for the development and promotion of women's football.However, the transfer of Polish players to Western or Northern Europe has the ability to influence the evolution of social representations and the changing position of women's football in Poland.
The development of Polish women's football has progressed slowly and is still under construction.There are several important moments in the history of Polish women's football, such as 1973, when an official women's team was established, and 1979, when the decision was made to create a women's league, the playing of the first international match in 1981, and 2000, when the Women's Football Commission of the Polish Football Association was founded.The last decade has seen the dismantling of stereotypes, with increased appreciation and interest in this sport, which was previously reserved for men.The Polish Football Association has begun to recognize the potential of women's football and is increasing funding for the sport.The Polish Football Association even put forward a bid to host the 2025 European Women's Football Championship, although UEFA opted to select another country.