“Horrendous”: People’s Experience of Their Dog’s Death From 1080 Baiting

ABSTRACT Human–animal relationships are often significant and intimate, with dogs having a meaningful presence in many people’s lives. This study investigated the impact of 1080 poisoning on dogs and their humans. 1080 (sodium fluoroacetate) is a common lethal poison used in Australia to control animal populations, including in parks and reserves bordering residential areas. People and their companion dogs may use these areas for leisure and exercise, with unintended harm and death caused to dogs who consume 1080 baits. Seven Australian participants shared their experience of their dog’s death from 1080 poisoning via in-depth semi-structured interviews. We applied Reflexive Thematic Analysis using a phenomenological perspective to identify themes and subthemes within and across participant accounts. People's and dogs’ experiences with 1080 influenced individual and broader human–animal relationships. Three themes and associated subthemes were identified: Responsibility, Horror, and Traumatic Grief. Before their dog’s poisoning, people recognized animal control methods were necessary; after their dog’s experience, people saw 1080 as an inhumane and horrific lethal control method. This is the first qualitative study to give voice to people and their dogs who have been unintentionally harmed by 1080. This study can inform decision-making of government agencies, conservation organizations, and animal carers of the impacts of 1080 baiting.

them to work (Brown & Rhodes, 2006;Foreman et al., 2017;Westgarth et al., 2017). People feel a sense of responsibility to care for their animals, feelings that are underpinned by the love between the human and their animal and the companion animal's dependency on their human (Westgarth et al., 2019).
Companion animals can act as proxy social supports, helping humans (e.g., older adults Zablan et al., 2022, people living in relative social isolation) feel more socially connected (van der Velpen et al., 2022). Pet owners also report less depression and appear to cope with grief and loss after the death of a human companion better than non-pet owners (Brooks et al., 2018). Children, adolescents, and teenagers who have companion animals at home benefit from higher self-esteem, an increased positive outlook on life, and reduced loneliness and boredom (Purewal et al., 2017). People also feel a sense of pride associated with successfully caring for their animal (Brooks et al., 2018).
Dogs have long had a meaningful presence as companions in people's lives (Messent & Serpell, 1981). In Australia, dogs are the most popular type of companion animal, with almost half the population having a dog (Wilkins et al., 2020). Dotson and Hyatt (2008) reported dog owners consider their attachment to their dog as strong as their attachments to their best friends, children, and spouses. Similarly, most dog owners (95%) agree that the welfare of dogs is very important to them (Cobb et al., 2020). Sanders (1993) showed dog owners, through intimate interactions with their dogs, perceive them as "unique individuals who are minded, empathetic, reciprocating, and wellaware of the basic rules and roles that govern the relationship" (p. 207). The individual relationship between a person and their dog is a personal and unique experience for both, which includes the loss or death of the dog (Cowling et al., 2020;Gerwolls & Labott, 1994).
The death of a dog can impact people's lives in various ways. Caring for their dog creates responsibilities around which they plan and socialize (Brooks et al., 2016;Brown & Rhodes, 2006), and the death of the dog can significantly impact mental health because people grieve for their dogs in the same way as they would for any significant loved one (Gerwolls & Labott, 1994). A study by Brooks et al. (2018) showed one of the perceived negative aspects of caring for a companion animal is the significant distress associated with both the potential and actual loss of the companion. This is exacerbated when the loss is during a traumatic event. This was demonstrated by pet owners involved in natural disasters, who felt companion animal loss can "add considerably to acute trauma and increase the risk of long-term impacts" (Hunt et al., 2008). As dogs are such a significant part of many people's lives, it is understandable that events affecting the dog can have far-reaching impacts for their humans. In Australia, the use of 1080 poison baits (sodium fluoroacetate) in wildlife management and conservation poses a risk to dogs through unintended poisoning, which could have significant impacts on dogs and their families.
Australian governments, private contractors, and property owners across Australia have routinely used 1080 poison baits since the 1950s to lethally control species considered pests, such as foxes, rabbits, cats, pigs, and wild dogs (Twigg & King, 1991). This bait is a schedule 7 metabolic poison that impairs mitochondrial function. Many native Australian animals have some tolerance to the effects of 1080 owing to their familiarity with a naturally occurring compound, potassium fluoroacetate, found in several native Australian plant species (Leong et al., 2017;McIlroy, 1986). This, and 1080s relative cost-effectiveness, makes it a common lethal control choice (Eason et al., 2011). However, lethal control of animals is a controversial practice within wildlife management and conservation, raising fundamental questions about animal ethics amongst conservationists, animal welfare groups, and the public (Gray, 2018;van Eeden et al., 2020). 1080 causes considerable suffering and death to animals who ingest it and faces opposition to its use because of its negative impacts on animal welfare (Goh et al., 2005;Sherley, 2007). The common practice of broadcast baiting with 1080 poison can result in "off target" or secondary poisonings. Dundas et al. (2014) found a high level of uptake of 1080 baits by non-target animals. Predators may also be affected through secondary poisoning from 1080 bait because it remains active in carcasses and in animals that have not received a lethal dose (Eason et al., 1996). Foxes, dingoes, dogs, and cats are most at risk of secondary poisoning (McIlroy, 1986), and dogs are at increased risk owing to the relatively small amount of 1080 needed for a lethal outcome (Eason et al., 2011).
Previous research on 1080 has investigated its mechanisms and effectiveness (Dundas et al., 2014;Eason et al., 2011;Goh et al., 2005;McIlroy, 1986), humaneness (Gray, 2018;Sherley, 2007), and the perceptions and views of the public regarding its use (Green & Rohan, 2012;Subroy et al., 2018;van Eeden et al., 2020). There is a noticeable lack of qualitative research into the impact unintentional baiting of companion animals has on people within our communities. This study aimed to explore people's experience of their companion dog's unintended 1080 poisoning and the impact of this on the individual and their broader human-animal relationships. A key value underlying this aim and qualitative approach was to "give voice" to individual people and their companion dogs who had experienced 1080 poisoning as an indirect consequence of wild-animal population control.

Participants
Participants (n = 7) had a companion dog that had consumed (or was suspected of having consumed) a 1080 bait. Recruitment strategies involved social media invitations via Facebook assisted by users sharing the invitations. We used three different designs of unpaid advertisement, with specific details aimed to recruit participants who were likely to have had direct experience with 1080 baiting. The advertisements were posted within Facebook pages covering topics of interest that include proximity with 1080 baiting. These included Facebook pages focused on rural issues, 1080 specific, local issues, conservation, and companion dogs. A convenience sampling approach was used, with participants selfidentifying as meeting the following inclusion criteria: (1) an Australian citizen/permanent resident, (2) aged 18 years or older, and (3) their dog had been poisoned by the taking of a 1080 bait. Recruitment and interviews occurred from February to March in 2021. We refer to participants as dog guardians in preference to dog owners. We believe "guardian" better expresses the caring and intimate relationship participants described having with their dogs. Similarly, we believe the word "pet" doesn't fully describe the relationship between dog and guardian; instead, we use the term "companion animal."

Design
A qualitative design using an in-depth, semi-structured interview method was employed so that participants could explain and explore their subjective experiences using their own words. The interview schedule included three fixed questions and associated prompts, as well as context and participant demographic questions (Table 1). Use of a semi-structured interview schedule ensured all participant responses were anchored by a set of fixed openended questions yet allowed flexibility for interviewer MZ to explore ideas and experiences unique to each participant by way of follow-up and probing questions. A phenomenological perspective was applied in the creation of the interview schedule, ensuring the subjective experiences of participants were considered as uniquely individual lived experiences, while allowing identification of commonalities across each person's narrative (Crotty, 1998).

Procedure
This study was approved by Deakin University Human Research Ethics Committee (2020-400). Participants were recruited via unpaid advertisements on social media platform Facebook. Participants submitted an expression of interest to participate and then were contacted to organize an interview session with MZ, signing and returning a consent form. Interviews were conducted via Zoom or phone, took 15-55 minutes, and were audio-recorded. Interviews were transcribed verbatim, and transcripts were offered to participants for review prior to analysis by the research team. Transcripts were de-identified prior to analysis and we use a unique pseudonym when referencing responses. "Dog/s" is used in the results section to acknowledge participants who had one or more dogs impacted by 1080 baiting.

Data Saturation
Inductive thematic saturation allows the researcher the flexibility to cease the collection of new data when the identification of new codes or themes is limited (Saunders et al., How has your experience with 1080 baiting affected your relationship with animals? Your own animals, animals in general? Were you affected financially? Context and demographic questions Where did the baiting happen? Where were you living (urban, regional, rural area)? Do you still live there? How did you know that your dog ate a 1080 bait? Is there anything else you would like to add? 2018). MZ collected and analyzed interview data progressively to determine when thematic saturation occurred. In the beginning, two interviews were conducted and analyzed, with identified codes and preliminary themes discussed amongst the project team. This validated the relevancy and efficacy of the interview schedule, allowing us to capture meaningful responses. A further three interviews were conducted and analyzed, then a final two at the end of the data collection period. The interview transcripts provided rich and detailed data, and by the seventh interview no significant new codes or insights were offered, suggesting the interview process had reached saturation (Guest et al., 2006;Saunders et al., 2018). Subsequent analysis confirmed seven interviews yielded clear commonalities across individual experiences.

Analysis
Reflexive Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2019, 2021 was applied to identify and report common themes and associated subthemes across participant responses. We framed this as a phenomenological study to ensure that the report focused on the lived and subjective experiences of dog guardians who had suffered the loss of a dog from 1080 baiting. The phenomenological approach purposefully included the occurrence of 1080 baiting with the subjective experience of dog guardians (van Manen, 1990). A data-driven, inductive approach to coding and theme development was employed, with codes and broader themes generated without a preexisting theoretical or coding framework to ensure participants and their experiences "spoke for themselves." Clarke's (2013, 2022) updated six-phase approach to Reflexive Thematic Analysis was used to ensure a structured and rigorous approach to coding, analysis, and interpretation. Qualitative analysis software NVivo (Version 12) was used to manage the data.

Reflexivity
MZ generated and synthesized codes within and across participant narratives, then consolidated codes into themes and subthemes. Researcher AH inductively co-coded transcripts, and all research team members discussed final theme/subtheme labeling and explanation to resolve ambiguity and reach semantic consensus.
Critical reflective practice was addressed at different stages of the research process to acknowledge researcher positionality: (1) Interview schedule questions were developed within the team via reiterative discussion and piloting, with researcher BB and AC playing "Devil's Advocate" regarding question intention and possible interpretations prior to finalization, and interviewer MZ piloting the schedule to refine questions and resolve implicit assumptions in question framing prior to delivery to participants; (2) Interviewer MZ actively engaged in "bracketing" during the interview process and primary data coding by acknowledging and challenging prior academic knowledge and personal biases relevant to the research topic; (3) Interviewer MZ kept a reflexive journal regarding her subjective insights on the research process during data collection, analysis, and write up; and (4) Co-coding researcher AH critically reflected on and made memos on the similarities and differences in coding and theme development, as compared with MZ, and discussed these with the research team prior to final theme labeling and interpretation.

Results
Participant experiences were uniquely personal, yet they followed a strikingly similar narrative trajectory regarding the lead up to their dog's death. Three themes and associated subthemes were identified by applying Reflexive Thematic Analysis (Table 2): Responsibility, Horror, and Traumatic Grief.

Theme 1: Responsibility
The theme of perceived or assumed responsibility presented strongly during interviews, conveying a duty to deal with and make decisions either for someone (in this case their dog/s) or for tasks or procedures aligned with an authoritative job role. Participant reflection on their experience of 1080 baiting raised larger issues of who is responsible and how they handle that responsibility. For instance, breaches of process, feelings of dismissal, disbelief, frustration, and anger were associated with failures of responsibility. The results indicate "responsibility" was linked to, but different from, "accountability," which was assumed to be how a person or group of people take ownership of the outcomes of the decisions and tasks they are responsible for.
An understanding of these responsibilities and a willingness to be accountable for them is clear on the part of the dog guardians. It is thought of as similar to an unwritten "contract" between those who are accountable for the outcomes and those for whom they are responsible.
The perspective of the participants showed clear understanding and acceptance of the responsibility of companion animal guardianship. Participants demonstrated a desire to spend time with their dogs not just for their own benefit but for the dog as well. Dog guardians intentionally dedicated time to providing meaningful exercise and social interactions for their dogs outside of the family home. The main theme of Responsibility is explained in the following four sub-themes: Investment in companion dog/s wellbeing; Awareness of 1080 baiting; A breach of process; and Lack of accountability.
Investment in Companion Dog/s Wellbeing Dog guardians felt it was their responsibility to ensure the wellbeing of their dog/s and to provide opportunities for them to participate in recreational activities, such as walks and runs outside the confines of their homes. Common places they frequented were the beach, wooded areas, and their own farmland. These activities were often described as especially important and shared with their dogs. The dog/s were considered a valuable and often central part of the family unit according to their humans, referred to by terms such as "my child," "best friend," and "companion." They were commonly thought of as dependents, similar to the relationship with a human child or with a long-time friend.
She was a beloved companion. She slept on my bed. We walked her every day. We played together. She was part of the family. (Jane) Participants described how their daily lives were filled with interactions with their dog/s. During many of these interactions, the dog guardians would actively include the dog/s in everyday tasks in a way that felt meaningful to both them and the dog/s. It suggests part of the responsibility of companion animal guardianship is purposeful, everyday interactions.
The dogs were often at the center of their guardian's family, included in and even acting as facilitators of conversation between other family members.
Well he was, I would say, […] at the centre of our universe. We just communicated through the dog. I'd say "oh, do you think […] wants dinner now?" We would talk to him all the time. We'd tell him when we'd be back when we went out. He was just the centre of our life, apart from our children (Laughs). (Jenny) Some guardians would interact with their dog for the majority of each day alongside them at work. I basically spent every waking moment with him. So, he went everywhere, when I went to work, I am self-employed, so he came to work and he travelled with me everywhere in my car. (Dave) Participants shared how much their dogs enjoyed outings and how much they themselves valued this time, and they felt these experiences or lack thereof had an effect inextricably tied with their own health.
[…] getting out of town into the bush areas is really important for your mental health. We can't do that anymore. (Jane) Thus, the dogs were part of their families and were a constant presence in their humans' lives, participating in everyday interactions. The relationships between family members and their dogs were highly prioritized and valued. This high centrality of family includes a positive attitude toward obligation or responsibility for each member within the family unit.

Awareness of 1080 Baiting
Participants reported varied awareness of 1080 baiting before their baiting experiences, and this raised several aspects of responsibility and authority. Some had not heard of 1080 before its effects on their dog/s; others were aware of its existence and intended purpose but had a limited amount of knowledge; and a couple of dog guardians were trained in the use of 1080 baiting for the purposes of pest species control on farmland and were aware of how it was applied.
Those who were aware used various methods to stay informed about its local use, including social media pages dedicated to people with an interest in dogs and the local community.
We were always looking out for more information. There was some information floating around and a few whispers about a potential baiting going on in […]. So, we knew to avoid those areas but we do like walking our dogs out bush, so there are some areas that we knew not to go to because of those two categories. (Jane) In addition, there was confusion and anger amongst the interviewed dog guardians regarding whose responsibility it is to educate and inform the public about 1080 baiting within their community. Frustration was expressed, with information availability described as often limited and contradictory.
After their and their dog/s 1080 baiting experience, the dog guardians were left feeling disbelief, anger, and even rage. They believed the general public did not understand the risks of 1080 baiting, and the limited information available did not accurately reflect what they experienced. Some interviewees felt they had no other option than to take on the responsibility to inform others personally.
It's just consumed us. We want people to be aware. There is not enough awareness about it. Most people that we have spoken to have said that they have never heard of 1080. The people that have heard of it, most of them weren't aware of the effects of it. (Anna) We actually delivered a speech to the council members. We were going to put up a billboard outside of town. We put posters up all through town. We handed out leaflets, so that others animal owners would be aware. (Jane)

A Breach of Process
Participants felt a responsibility to ensure the safety of their dog/s, integrating various safety precautions into their routines. They explained they would watch out for snakes and other dogs while walking. Those who were originally aware of 1080 baiting also implemented procedures to minimize the risk of 1080 baiting during outings near known baited areas, such as by using leads at certain times and looking for signage. Despite these precautions, participants suggested a breach of trust and process from responsible authorities was frequently associated with their 1080 baiting experience. It seemed to them like an inexplicable or inexcusable failing, beyond the control or influence of the dog or dog guardian. I didn't see any signs because there's several ways to get onto the beach, […] and she was actually in the dunes and she picked up the bait in the dunes. (Megan) We were told by park rangers that it wasn't a conservation area. So, we'd take the dogs there and let them play and run around. I never knew anything at all about 1080. I didn't even know that it existed. (Anna) One dog guardian, who traveled around with his dog for work, described how he would try to avoid 1080 baiting areas completely.
Some of the places that I used to prospect were in state forest, where they use 1080 to control pests. They had baiting programs up there and that's why I stopped going to those areas because of Duke. (Dave) Some dog guardians described the small window of time and suddenness with which the dogs were able to consume baits. They also described how a small distraction from their vigilance toward 1080 baiting in the area potentially resulted in their dog/s consuming the baits.
[…] I was talking to my girlfriend, I turned around and Benny wasn't with me, so I called and he came straight away, now that would have only been no more than 30 seconds he was out of my sight, in that time he had found a bait and eaten it […] I've done it 1000 times and he was just with me, I suppose because I was talking […] my mind was just off him for about I would say 30 seconds and no more because he came straight away, I said "Benny, come on," and he ran so […] (Jenny) The consequences experienced by the dogs and their humans seemed disproportionate to the breaches of process, particularly given the precautions and vigilance. This fostered a deep sense of unfairness or powerlessness for the dog guardians, given their profound sense of responsibility for their dog/s welfare.

Lack of Accountability
After their dog/s experience with 1080 baiting, most dog guardians sought to understand where processes and safety procedures had failed. Some participants researched 1080 baiting to understand procedures and regulations, noting a breach of regulation was potentially responsible for the death of their dog.
It angers, not even the word, rage beyond rage, like because, it was pointless, avoidable and unjust. And that's the worst of it. All could have been avoided if he taken an hour to go around his property and put the up the signs he was meant to put out, out. All of it could have been avoidable. And what I have realized is that there is zero accountability for it at all, there's no accountability when we're dealing with the highest level of the DJPR who are meant to enforce the rules around it. We had Duke's toxicology report. We had video from the day. We had evidence of 1080 bait sites. We had evidence of the dates that they were put out. We had all that stuff and they said "there's not enough to convict the guy because the system self-regulated," that was their words to me in an email. (Dave) Participants who contacted the local council or government department to report improper use felt the department did not take responsibility to ensure proper use.
Nor could we get any answers about why the bait would be outside of the areas they were designated for or even any condolence from anyone because there was no-one who we could find out was responsible but there was a lot of anger from that. Yeah, someone has to be responsible for my dog dying from bait that was on a public road that people are entitled to use. (Jane) In some cases, dog guardians were given inconsistent information regarding the use of bait procedures in the area that contradicted their personal experience. The dog guardians who felt their experiences were due to a breach of process or regulatory failure were further frustrated by a feeling of dismissal and belittlement, perhaps because the government didn't acknowledge and take their concerns seriously when attempting to bring this information to those they felt should be responsible. This left the dog guardians feeling a strong disconnect between the intensity of their experience with 1080 baiting and the almost non-existent reaction from those they felt were responsible, thus prolonging their pain.

Theme 2: Horror
For the interview participants, watching their "loved one" die from 1080 baiting was stated as one of the most horrific experiences of their lives. Each strongly and repeatedly used the words "horrendous" and "horrifying" to describe their experience. This theme was explained in the following three sub-themes: Running away from pain; Watching someone you love suffering; and No animal deserves to die like that.

Running Away from Pain
According to the dog guardians, their dogs were terrified. They appeared to have no understanding of what was happening to them and were acting in a way described as extreme survival mode. As shared by Anna: I suddenly heard Boss screaming, not yelping, he was screaming.
[…] Boss was just running around with his tail between his legs, absolutely terrified. […] My partner was in an absolute panic.
Guardians described their observations of their dog as if they were in extreme amounts of pain, experiencing loss of control over basic bodily functions and behavioral patterns.
He tried to run inside and it was strange because you could see him have these like lucid moments. Some, most of it was pure instinct, he was just running away from pain, because the way it was screaming there's no other way it was presenting other than pain. (Dave) He was alternating between screaming and crying, yelping he was just running around as if he was trying to get away from something. (Anna) […] he was running that fast and he obviously had no control over what his body was doing, he just hit the fence at full speed, it dropped him to the ground and he's on the ground snarling and biting and whatnot, at himself, at me, anyone who tried to get near. (Dave) Watching Someone You Love Suffering Dog guardians expressed a feeling of complete powerlessness when trying to ease their dog's suffering and not being able to. According to guardians who were present for the onset of symptoms, all they felt they could do was attempt to comfort their dog/s by talking to them and holding them when they could.
Eventually, he stood back up off the ground. I couldn't touch him, I couldn't get near him because of the way he was biting. And he started going at me, he started biting at me and it like, lunging for me and snarling and whatnot and I was just talking to him, like "hey Duke, it's going to be right," "You know we're going to get help," you know, "you just relax, just relax, it's going to be okay." (Dave) The experience was noted to be severe, leaving intrusive imagery and thoughts long after the 1080 baiting had happened. I can't get it out of my mind.
[…] how her face was, and she was so still, with her face like that and, you know, she wasn't vicious at all. […] it was so absolutely heartbreaking. I can't even; heartbreaking is not the right word for it. No, I need a more intense word than heartbreaking, just to see someone that you love go through that and know that they suffered every second until they died. (Anna) The severity of the 1080 baiting symptoms left guardians without an opportunity to do anything to change the situation, leading to a strong feeling of powerlessness. Not being able to help reduce the suffering amplified the horrendousness.

No Animal Deserves to Die Like That
Participants explained the experience with 1080 baiting had impacted the way they felt and thought about other animals. Many had developed an increased level of empathy for animals and a sense of responsibility to protect all species of animals from the same suffering their dog/s experienced, although some still expressed an understanding for the potential need of animal management practices. Following their experience with 1080 baiting, all participants stated they did not believe any animal should be exposed to 1080 baiting regardless of species and status.
[…] to make the conscious choice to say that killing anything over a period of up to days, at minimum hours and in excruciating pain, cannot be an accepted method that we choose to use […] (Dave) Well it just sickens me that I know we have to do something about feral animals but it's just horrible. No animal whether it is feral or not deserves to be tortured like that. (Kate) Many guardians described ways in which they have since changed their daily behaviorsfor example, with pest control around the home. This experience had also led to rumination on how wild animals must feel while experiencing the same symptoms their dogs had with 1080 baiting.
[…] I just keep thinking that you know, imagine wild animals out there on their own. They do not know what is going on. They would be absolutely terrified, petrified you know. They, even if someone did come along and try to save them, they would still be scared because they are wild. They'd be even more terrified. There's nothing that you can do. (Anna) Participants, while understanding the need for animal management practices, viewed these practices as a choice or deliberate act. That is, the "what, how, and where" of lethal control methods are choices made by individuals and management agencies. For the participants, perceiving 1080 baiting as a choice made on purpose, that led to the horrendous suffering and death of their dog/s, perpetuated their anger and frustration.

Theme 3: Traumatic Grief
In any circumstance of loss, the experience of grief is likely; however, "traumatic grief" best reflects the type of grief reported by participants regarding their and their dog/s experience with 1080 baiting. Traumatic grief is the outcome of experiencing a loss that is unexpected, if grief could be best described as a period of mourning after experiencing a loss. Traumatic grief, in addition to the period of mourning, triggers extreme behaviors and anxieties which last for extended periods of time at levels that impact or interfere with aspects of daily life. A strong theme surrounding traumatic grief was identified across the interviewed participants and was separated into three sub-themes: Guilt; Hypervigilance; and Accepting the unacceptable.

Guilt
Many participants reported feelings of guilt, anger, and frustration toward themselves after the 1080 baiting experience, even in the present long after the event. As described by Megan, feelings of joy can also trigger guilt when thinking about their loved-one, who suffered.
Oh, terrible guilt, we were in the lunch room having a great time and she was in the garage dying, you know, so it was just awful. It was such a horrible way to die. It wasn't quick and you know her insides basically came out, outside. So it was excruciating to think that such a beautiful soul had such a horrible death.
For dog guardian Kate, the feelings of guilt were so extreme she felt she deserved to be punished: Honestly it nearly destroyed me. I was utterly devastated and I just, I couldn't let go of that guilt from letting her down, letting the dog down. So I just, I watched all these dog 1080 videos on YouTube on how they were dying cause I thought, I should watch it, I should see what I put that dog through. That was just awful watching all those videos but I just thought, no, I deserve it.
The interviewees' feelings of guilt persisted, in some cases many years after the 1080 baiting experience. It was as if punishing themselves gave the guardians a sense of action; a way of feeling like they were doing something to manage their grief and to "make amends" to their beloved dog for the suffering they endured.

Hypervigilance
Participants described a high level of anxiety for new or other dogs still in their care. For example, Dave shared how vigilant and sensitive he had become to any behaviors similar to the 1080 baiting symptoms he had witnessed his dog Duke suffer from: And then the new puppy […] the fear I have of taking her anywhere, is just biblical right and every little twitch she makes, every little move all the symptoms that Duke displayed on a micro scale because it's natural symptoms, everyone shakes every so often, everyone runs, everyone, they're all things that happen. […] I don't want to witness that ever again and so it's making me question my career and a whole lot (laughs) because I don't want to risk that, like I don't want to put another animal through that.
Participants who reported potential failings of processes, which they believed led to the poisoning of their dog/s, exhibited this state of hypervigilance, and increasingly more so when their concerns were dismissed. A consistent feeling of anxiety was exhibited, accompanied by distress that nothing would be done to correct what they felt was a shortcoming of the current system. Interview participants who attempted to report potential problems in procedures and processes exhibited this state of hypervigilance through a feeling of anger and ongoing concerns about safety. So, I still can't go to the beach, I cannot go to that beach. I can't take my dogs to any beach now. I've got two dogs still. (Megan) These feelings of anxiety were even felt while at home. It just, it makes you just so angry to think that when people are putting 1080 out, your own property isn't safe. (Sarah) Guardians were hypervigilant about the safety of their dogs, but 1080 also made them fear for their own psychological safety. The horrendous pain of witnessing the 1080 poisoning experience was something they never wanted to experience again. Being in a state of constant anxiety over not just the safety of their dog/s but their own safety has had long-lasting impacts on the participants' physical and mental health. Participants reported modifying their behaviors to avoid potential risk and anxiety by, say, completely avoiding going to places where there may be baits or by going to these places in such a state of hypervigilance and fear that they cannot be fully "present" to enjoy the experience.
Accepting the Unacceptable While the interview participants' experiences with 1080 baiting ranged from 20 years prior to the interview to a matter of weeks, there was a clear theme of an inability to fully accept what had happened to their dog/s. The perception of unacceptability was not limited to the experience of their dog/s but was also projected onto responses from authorities and community departments.
[…] So many people are going through what we went through and continue to go [through] what we go through and there's no action taken, nor any answers about what's going to happen in the future. So, yeah, a lot of frustration, a lot of anger and obviously, it's still a very, very traumatic, bruised event in our life. (Jane) Most guardians considered Australia to be a progressive country they were proud to live in, and yet, their experience with 1080 baiting had challenged this perception.
[…] what an inhumane thing to do to any living creature.
[…] I am just angry that this is happening in Australia, I really am. We are such a progressive country. It's banned in so many parts of the world. And Australia, of all places, is still using it.
[…] it's just not Australian to see a wild animal, never mind a dog that you love, die like that. (Jane) While the guardians were in various stages of acceptance that their loved one was gone, they could not accept the way they had died.

Discussion
We aimed to identify themes and patterns of the experiences of people and their dogs with 1080 baiting. Three main themes and their subsequent sub-themes were presented to explain how dog guardians make sense of this experience and how these experiences were shown to influence human-animal relationships. Amongst all participants there was a clear sense of responsibility and understanding of their obligations as companion animal guardians. The opportunity to take their dog/s out of the confines of the family home to experience nature was described as meaningful to both dog/s and humans. "Dog obligation" is a significant motivator of dog walking, along with associated health benefits (Brown & Rhodes, 2006). A previous study found that dog walking is a method to meet the "emotional needs of the owner as well as the physical needs of the dog" (Westgarth et al., 2019, p. 13).
The awareness of 1080 varied across the participants. Those who were aware described taking precautionary measures to protect their dog/s. All dog guardians researched 1080 baiting after the death of their dog to better understand how they had failed to protect them. Those who found breaches in 1080 baiting processes felt a responsibility to bring the breach to the attention of those who could prevent other dogs being affected. Participants expressed frustration at the lack of accountability when attempting to seek support or inform those they felt would be responsible. Park rangers, local councils, and government agencies added to dog owners' frustrations through an inconsistency in information regarding the specific local area use of 1080 baiting and regulations for use.
Participants who witnessed the effect of 1080 baiting on their companion animal stated the experience was horrific; they described witnessing symptoms including uncontrollable running, loss of control of basic bodily functions, and out of character aggressive behavior. These physical symptoms lead the guardians to believe the dogs were experiencing a state of confusion, fear, and severe pain. While the loss of a companion animal can be overwhelmingly emotional and the grieving process is unique to the individual, the interviewed participants exhibited typical traits of traumatic grief, such as guilt, hypervigilance, and an inability to accept the outcome of loss (Neria & Litz, 2004). All participants felt a sense of responsibility and guilt for their decisions leading up to their dog dying, similar to what is reported in traumatic pet loss (Schroeder & Clark, 2019).
These experiences increased empathy and protectiveness toward animals of all species when considering lethal-control methods. The dog guardians perceived animal-control methods were necessary; however, they vehemently believed 1080 baiting to be an inhumane method that does not match the progressive values they believed to be associated with living in a country like Australia. The 1080 baiting experience had a profound and long-lasting impact on the participants. They felt powerless to prevent the horrendous suffering and death of their dog/s, powerless to hold those they felt were responsible accountable, and powerless to prevent future 1080 baiting experiences happening to other dogs and animals. This feeling of powerlessness perpetuates the ongoing suffering of the guardians sometimes long after the horrendous and sudden loss of their dogs.
The seriousness with which participants responded to their experience with 1080 contrasted starkly with the perceived response of those seen to be in a position of authority and responsibility regarding 1080 baiting. Participants reported responses from authorities that minimized the importance of their companions' lives and lessened any accountability for their horrendous deaths. This suggests a significant difference in how participants and authorities value companion dogs, with authorities seemingly prioritizing human and organizational interests over those of citizens and their companion dogs. The trauma of seeing their companion suffer from 1080 poisoning also made participants question the poisoning of other animals that are often seen as less valuable to society (van Eeden et al., 2020). Future research should explore how values (e.g., anthropocentrism, speciesism) might influence people's interpretation of 1080 baiting and how this differs between individuals and organizations, as well as the significant power dynamics at play with authoritarian actions.
We believe the interviews and insights of this research have given the participants and their dogs an opportunity to have their voices heard and feel a sense of action. As the first study to document in-depth the experiences of people and their dogs with 1080 baiting, it can be used to inform rural communities, government agencies, and dog guardians of the impacts that 1080 baiting has on individuals within our communities and their companion animals. Future research could investigate the effects of 1080 baiting within communities from a sociological perspective, perhaps focusing on loss of trust, changing forms of political expression and agency, as well as community tolerance and acceptance of alternative approaches to wildlife management.