‘A good teacher should…’: exploring student perceptions of teaching quality in Rwandan secondary education

ABSTRACT There have been significant efforts to enhance teaching quality in Rwandan secondary schools. Despite this focus, there has been little attention to understanding this construct, and especially what it means for students who are most affected by it. To address this gap, this study explored with students comprehensively what they valued in a ‘good’ teacher. Data drew upon 75 group discussions involving 419 students across 12 schools from six Rwandan districts. Through thematic analysis, findings revealed an understanding of ‘good’ teachers via multiple dimensions. Students highlighted the importance of teacher disposition and responsible behaviors. Teacher–student relationships were also strongly valued as was holistic learning including positive values and being influenced cognitively and affectively. These results provide important implications for teacher professional development and policies in response to the contextualized preferences.


Introduction
The surging demand for quality secondary education among African contexts has often been driven by the need for a strong labor force to support national development (African Union, 2016).Rwanda's Vision 2050 similarly seeks national growth and development for the country to reach upper-middle-income status (World Bank/GoR, 2020).There have thus been significant efforts to improve the quality of teaching-and-learning in Rwandan secondary schools, particularly for the most disadvantaged students.Despite the strong focus on enhancing secondary teaching quality in Rwanda, this construct remains underexplored, especially with students who constitute an important stakeholder group in teaching-and-learning.From a manual search of the Rwandan Journal of Education from 2012 to 2022, only seven studies were located which involved students.Four others were also found from other journals (see Appendix 1).At the secondary education level, in-depth engagement with student perspectives was only found in two of these studies (Ukobizaba et al., 2021;Williams, 2018).Beyond Rwanda, a relative paucity of research with students in African contexts can also be found when comparing to other stakeholder groups (Kurian & Singal, 2021).A possible reason for this limited research has been attributed to the existing socio-cultural norms and values around child-rearing practices and socialization in various African contexts (Akyeampong & Adzahlie-Mensah, 2018;Kiragu et al., 2012;Tabulawa, 2013).
In this paper, we explore Rwandan secondary school students' understandings of a 'good teacher'.We begin by discussing why including children's perspectives in educational reform efforts is essential, highlighting some of the research in this area and how our study contributes to this growing evidence-base.We then outline our methodological process, followed by the findings.Lastly, in drawing upon previous research, we highlight aspects of teaching-and-learning that are uniquely identified by students.

Student perspectives for improving education
Educational research in the past decades has problematized the exclusion of student perspectives.This call for inclusion is often underpinned by democratic values which recognize all citizens as participants in social life, including children (Messiou et al., 2022).While greater advocacy has been made on respecting students' rights (Cook-Sather, 2006) and enhancing social justice through changing unequal power structures (Robinson & Taylor, 2007), different research agendas involve students with various rationales and to different extents.Bloemert et al. (2020) provide a helpful comparison of different frameworks that conceptualize the inclusion of student voice as being on a continuum.These are grouped under three typologies which suggest the different uses and purposes of using student perspectives: 1) learners as data source; 2) learners in dialogue; and 3) learners as initiators.The authors summarize these as often distinguished by the assumed agency owned by students, and their level of active involvement in changing institutional structures or policies.That said, the authors also warn that even if learners are involved primarily as a data source, their participation may not necessarily be passive.This depends on how student voice is valued and harnessed by researchers.
Understanding student perspectives is imperative to enabling positive changes in schools.This is recognized in school reform efforts on resolving conflicts (Mitra & Gross, 2009), enhancing classroom practices, and making implementation efforts more effective (Fullan, 2007;Mitra, 2018).The importance of engaging with student perspectives is also evident in research highlighting learning not only as cognitive activities but deep emotional experiences.Dai and Sternberg (2004) call for an integrative approach to emotion, motivation, and cognition.Similarly, an OECD-commissioned report (Boekaerts, 2010) and a manual commissioned by the International Bureau of Education (Pekrun, 2014) explain how positive emotions can support students' attention, learning motivation, learning strategies, and self-regulation.In a meta-analytical review, the sense of school belonging was also found to be positively correlated with academic achievement and motivational, socialemotional, and behavioral outcomes (Korpershoek et al., 2020).In this regard, teachers have strong potential to not only develop skills and knowledge but also help students cultivate a sense of belonging (Allen et al., 2021).
The need to engage with student perspectives is also important to fulfil the policy vision of 'learner-centred' educational approaches within a range of global contexts.While varied interpretations of 'learner-centered' education exist, Schweisfurth (2013) proposes seven minimum standards which draw on empirical research from varied contexts.These revolve around making learning more engaging and relevant by building on students' prior knowledge, lives, and perceived future needs.Additionally, mutual respect between teachers and students is promoted.In Rwanda, the competence-based-curriculum (CBC), officialized in 2016, defines a 'learner-centered' approach as learning which is 'active, participative and engaging rather than passive', 'personalised', and addresses 'individual needs and expectations' (REB/MINEDUC, 2015, p. 23).To achieve these visions, it is thus particularly important to engage with student perspectives to understand what they themselves value in their teaching-and-learning encounters.
This study complements related research carried-out for the Mastercard Foundation's Leaders in Teaching (LIT) initiative.LIT is a five-year initiative that was established in 2018 to improve the quality of school leadership, teaching-and-learning in Rwandan secondary schools [Laterite & Research for Equitable Access and Learning (REAL) Centre, University of Cambridge (REAL Centre & Laterite, 2021)].It responds to strategic priorities outlined in Rwanda's Education Sector Strategic Plan 2018/19 to 2023/24 and is focused on enhancing the quality of learning outcomes, as well as teacher professional development and management in STEM, in 14 Rwandan districts.Six Implementing Partners are involved in partnership with the Mastercard Foundation.Additionally, Laterite and the REAL Centre, based at the University of Cambridge, are the Learning Partners for the initiative and responsible for generating evidence of improved school leadership, teaching-and-learning, which may be attributed to the intervention.Research studies undertaken for LIT have explored understandings of teaching quality in Rwanda from other stakeholder groups, including teachers (Carter et al., 2021), headteachers, and government officials (Carter et al., 2022), which all contribute to the provision of a fuller picture on what teaching quality means within Rwanda.

Focus of study
The key aim of the paper is to identify what Rwandan secondary school students consider as a 'good teacher'.Using a qualitative approach, our research focus is on supporting students to think about and identify the multi-dimensionality of a 'good' teacher.These identified attributes are then compared within and across schools, with students' gender also being considered in our analysis.
This study seeks to go beyond a narrow understanding of 'good' teachers based on a few discrete attributes.Studies conducted internationally (Naylor & Sayed, 2014) and within Rwanda (Kodero et al., 2011) have underscored the need for widening the set of attributes when understanding teachers.Hence, this study has adopted a more comprehensive approach to exploring teaching quality.It departs from focusing on a specific domain, as has been the case with other Rwandan studies, i.e. teacher knowledge (Maniraho & Christiansen, 2015); language proficiency (Niyibizi, 2015); and teachers' subject-specific or general classroom teaching practices (Ndabaga et al., 2017;Uwizeyimana et al., 2018).
Internationally, this research paper contributes to the steadily growing body of studies focusing on engaging with students' perspectives, and suggests some methodological innovations to help address some of the challenges identified in undertaking such work with young people in African contexts (e.g.Mitchell, 2019 in Ethiopia;Namphande et al., 2017 in Malawi).

Research design
The data presented in this paper draw from a wider research project exploring teaching quality from the perceptions of different stakeholder groups (Carter et al., 2021(Carter et al., , 2022)).In this paper, we focus on one aspect of the student data.

Sample
This study applied a purposive sampling approach.Of all schools offering lower-secondary education (or Ordinary Level) in 14 districts (of 30) where LIT operated, 360 schools across 57% of sectors and stratified by district and Schools of Excellence have been involved in data collection activities to date.Schools involved in the present study were purposively sampled from 94 secondary schools involved in an earlier baseline quantitative study for the LIT initiative.These schools were selected based on the extent of LIT training, location (rural/urban) and type (SOEs/regular schools).'School of Excellence' (SOE) was a label adopted in Rwanda to describe boarding schools with science subject combinations that were provided by the government with high-quality resources to support learning.These schools typically recruit more qualified teachers compared to regular schools and select the highest achieving students who generally come from wealthier backgrounds, compared with students from regular schools (MINEDUC, 2018a).Secondary 3 classes, typically attended by students aged 14-17, were selected given their involvement in earlier research conducted for LIT.
Table 1 outlines the different districts and locations of the 12 chosen schools.As seen, 11 schools were from rural areas, whereas one was from an urban area.These proportions align with those secondary schools included in research activities for LIT and in Rwanda generally, where 91% and 85% are in rural areas, respectively.As shown, we engaged with 419 students in small groups (5-7 students) across the 12 schools.Our sample comprised 22 all-male, 27 all-female, and 26 mixed-gender groups.
Only one group had one student with a physical disability.We focused upon gender-specific groupings under the assumption that gender differences exist in relation to student views on what makes a good teacher.While limited, previous research has explored and attested to these differences within a number of international contexts including Croatia (Purković et al., 2021) and Trinidad and Tobago (Jules & Kutnick, 1997).To our knowledge, however, no research exploring gendered differences in relation to student views of teaching quality has been examined within Rwanda.

Research methods
In the wider research project, data collection with students constituted numerous methods, including photo elicitation, semi-structured booklets, semi-narrative classroom observation, and a group activity.In this paper, we discuss data from the group activity which was aimed at understanding how students described a 'good' teacher.
For this activity, a large sheet with the outline of a human figure was presented to each group who were asked to 'develop this person into a good teacher'.They were given colorful markers and were encouraged to work together for over 45 minutes.Students were encouraged to creatively use words of any length.Illustrations were also encouraged for expressing abstract ideas, subconscious or tacit knowledge that might not be otherwise available (Pain, 2012).Figure 1 shows two example responses.

Ethics
The study received ethical approval from the Rwandan National Ethics Committee, the National Commission for Science and Technology, Rwanda Basic Education Board (REB), and relevant district offices.Internal ethical approval was granted by the ethics committee at the University of Cambridge, UK.
Within schools, written consent was sought from headteachers or Directors of Studies prior to student involvement.Students were informed of the research purpose, processes, and how their views and images would be used for analysis and reporting.Students were also made aware of the purpose of the group activity, which served as a 'safe space' to share thoughts.This was achieved by ensuring confidentiality, and being clear that no comments made would be shared with teachers or school leaders unless anonymized.Verbal consent was sought from students before commencing each activity.The procedure for the activity was reviewed at the start of the task, and students were given the option to opt-out at any time.No adults from school management or staff were present during the activity.All activities related to obtaining consent from school leaders and students were conducted using the Kinyarwanda language.

Research process
Three guiding questions derived from Goe et al. (2008) were provided to students to support their reflection: • What is a good teacher like?(e.g.What do they sound like and act like in class?What else does a good teacher bring to the classroom?)

Analysis
The text on the human figures was first translated into English from Kinyarwanda.For students who used drawings, most of these referred to an object (e.g.computer, human body part) after which students included written descriptions about their drawings.We were thus able to translate the drawings into words, so they could be coded and analysed together.The study utilized a word count and thematic analysis (TA) approach assisted by NVivo 12.Following Braun and Clarke's (2012) approach of reflexive TA, a six-phase process was conducted iteratively including: (1) Data familiarization and writing familiarization notes; School B-4 School E-4 (2) Systematic data coding; (3) Generating initial themes from coded and collated data; (4) Developing and reviewing themes; (5) Refining, defining, and naming themes; and (6) Writing the report.
We valued reflexive TA as an open and organic coding process, in which themes did not 'emerge' as pre-existing entities (Braun & Clarke, 2021).Rather, analysis was a process during which we subjectively created and selected themes by observing meanings and patterns in the dataset.The analysis focused on identifying similarities across responses through observing the salience and richness of themes.After the initial coding framework was developed independently by one author, it was then shared amongst the team to mitigate potential biases.The coding framework was then shared with all authors for feedback and finalized after a group review.This collective engagement was essential given that, due to the paucity of resources and time, we were unable to return to each school and conduct member-checking with participants.

Findings
The following sections present the main themes and sub-themes students associated with 'good' teachers.This study adopts a framework comprised three overall components which draw on terminology from prior literature (e.g.Goe et al., 2008) to understand teaching quality.These comprise: 'teacher inputs', which can be understood as what teachers bring to the classroom, including personal characteristics, qualifications, and training; 'teacher processes', which reflect what a teacher does inside the classroom to facilitate learning and engagement, such as their instructional processes and practices; and, 'student outcomes', which constitute what students derive from being taught by a good teacher, including achievement and confidence, among other outcomes.These interrelated components, as informed by varied theoretical bases, have previously been used in a range of studies across international contexts including Rwanda, notably in relation to exploring what 'good' teaching quality entails (Carter et al., 2021(Carter et al., , 2022;;Tao, 2016).While these three components of teaching quality were used as our rudimentary conceptual framing in analysis, this was done under the assumption that the dimensions are interconnected.Given this, it was also anticipated that some overlap between themes may occur during analysis.In the tables below, numbers in brackets are provided to indicate the number of groups where themes and sub-themes were discussed, and therefore their salience.After presenting overall observations, disaggregated responses by gender are highlighted.

Inputs
For the dimension of teaching inputs, five key themes (Table 2) emerged from students' discussions.These included teacher disposition, responsible behaviors, teacher image, teacher motivation, and teacher competencies.

Teacher disposition
As seen, most groups (62) highlighted teacher disposition as an important input associated with teaching quality.A key dimension of this theme as discussed in 43 groups was teachers' positive social relations with others, colleagues and students.For instance, one group shared that 'a good teacher should respect him/herself 1 in front of students' (School-L7).Students also made a range of emotional associations in reference to this sub-theme including teachers being kind, polite, and bringing harmony or peace into the classroom.One group commented: 'a good teacher should always come to class filled with kindness' (School-G2).
Nearly one-third of groups expected 'good' teachers to be confident, have a positive mindset, and be patient.For confidence, one group highlighted that a 'good' teacher 'should never be shy in front of students' (School-F4).Other groups commented on the importance of teachers being courageous, brave, and outspoken in relation to this theme.Positive mindset referred to students' preference for teachers 'bring[ing] happiness and joy when (they are) teaching.'(School-B2).Patience was associated with teachers not easily getting angry at students.Similarly, others expected teachers not to be led by their emotions or be shorttempered.
Fifteen groups further associated 'good' teachers with values related to trustworthiness, including being honest.One group shared that teachers should 'never lie to students' (School-K6).Being humble was another cherished value as revealed by students' preference for teachers with 'humility' (School-I4) and those who 'never show off in front of students' (School-H4).Notably, the notion of 'cultural values' was raised within nine groups, with one sharing, 'a good teacher respects the national cultural values and taboos' (School-G4).Other examples similarly mentioned by nine groups included being loving and religious.Being innovative was also noted by students in seven groups.

Responsible behaviors
Another key theme associated with being a 'good' teacher was having responsible behaviors.This arose in 62 groups and was supported by five sub-themes.Maintaining a healthy lifestyle-discussed within 39 groups-related to teacher cleanliness (e.g.'a good teacher must have a clean body and clothes' (School-B1)) and their avoidance of potentially harmful substances including alcohol and drugs (e.g.'a good teacher should never take alcohol before coming to school as it can disturb students' (School-K3)).Another example concerned teachers having responsible sexual relationships to avoid 'lust towards his/her students' (School-C5), adultery, flirting, or dating students.Punctuality was valued in 37 groups, with students remarking that 'a good teacher must always be on time' (School-K5).
Students further expressed that 'good' teachers should be role models for students.Students shared, 'a good teacher should set a good example for students' (School-G2).'Good' teachers were also preferred within 17 groups to be disciplined.One group communicated that they liked teachers 'to be well educated with discipline and manners' (School-H4) .Lastly, in 14 groups, 'good' teachers were considered as respecting power and authorities.Teacher image (51) Students referred to a range of regulations that they believed 'good' teachers should follow including school rules as well as national laws on corruption, taxation, and COVID-19 regulations.

Teacher competencies
Teacher competencies was additionally revealed as a key theme linked to inputs in almost twothirds of groups.The majority of these (37) expected teachers to have expertise in the subject taught.This was primarily associated with being knowledgeable, as identified by close to one-third of groups.Other criteria were teachers having received training, having specialized or majored in the subject taught, and having performed well in their own studies.Moreover, students expected 'good' teachers to be intelligent (16 groups), which meant being 'smart both mentally and physically' (School-D4).Discussions also centered around teachers being able to teach well generally (13 groups) and their linguistic competence (seven groups).For example, students hoped that a 'good' teacher 'should be able to speak well' and 'know international languages' (School-E1).

Teacher image
Building on the theme responsible behaviors, the importance of teacher image was discussed in over two-thirds of groups.Students considered decent or smart clothes as appropriate for teaching.Another group expressed: 'a good teacher should avoid things that can distract students such as necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and damaged clothes, or for men, they should avoid pushing their pants down' (School-B3).A laboratory coat was mentioned in one-third of groups as an appropriate choice for 'good' teachers.

Teacher motivation
Thirty-nine groups appreciated 'good' teachers who were motivated about their job.This was associated with teachers loving and being happy with their roles and being committed and devoted to their position.Students shared, 'a good teacher must love his/her job and s/he should do it as well as possible' (School-B5) and 'should teach passionately' (School-K1).Another attribute associated with motivation was teachers' work-ethic.In 18 groups, students cherished 'good' teachers who were hardworking.

Gendered differences under inputs
In focusing on data from all-male and all-female groups under the inputs dimension, there was a general similarity in terms of the proportions who mentioned each theme and sub-theme (Appendix 2: Table A1).A major difference, however, was noted for the sub-theme positive mindset, as mentioned by 11 all-female groups, but only four all-male groups.In addition, four all-female groups valued teachers being entertaining, a descriptor not mentioned within all-male groups.The theme teacher image was also more frequently discussed by all-female groups, i.e. 20 as opposed to 12 all-male groups.

Processes
Regarding processes for understanding teaching quality, findings were clustered under four key themes: teacher-student relationship (all groups); classroom practices to support student learning (71 groups); and classroom materials (60 groups) (Table 3).

Teacher-student relationship
For teacher-student relationship, three major sub-themes were identified.Having a culture of care received the most attention, as highlighted within 70 groups.This was contexualized as a teacher who understands all students by investing time in interacting with them in diverse ways.Students shared, a 'good' teacher 'gives students time to talk to him/her and listens to their challenges' (School-J1), a process which should also continue outside lesson times (e.g. through home visits).Another related attribute concerned teachers being patient when students made mistakes.Regarding care for students with different needs, participants mostly expressed a preference for teachers to be 'fair' and non-discriminatory in their attitudes and actions.The importance of teachers loving students and valuing their potentials was noted in relation to this theme.Students expressed, 'a good teacher should show love to his or her students' (School-D4) and 'should believe that you will be a great person even when you do not perform well in class' (School-C2).Lastly, teachers' encouragement of students, boosting student motivation and comforting students were viewed as important behaviors linked to a culture of care.
Another key dimension in building teacher-student relationship was classroom management approaches, as found in 64 groups.Students expressed a preference for teachers disciplining them and correcting their behaviors.Students shared that a 'good' teacher 'should apply discipline so students know what they have done wrong and how to correct themselves' (School-B4).This required teachers monitoring students closely, including their attendance and collaboration.Meanwhile, groups communicated the importance of teachers being respectful towards students and using reasonable means of punishment.On the former, most students indicated that respectful teachers should not yell at or use offensive language towards students.Students stated that a 'good' teacher 'does not offend or criticize students' (School-G5), 'should not be vulgar' (School-L1), and 'must avoid sarcasm or humiliating students' (School-H4).For the latter, students described that 'a teacher should correct or punish a student but not excessively' (School-B2).These included not beating or slapping students, not rushing into punishment, and only punishing in a 'nontraumatizing way' (School-F1).
Moreover, two-thirds of groups appreciated 'good' teachers who could build mutual trust.This was described as students looking up to teachers for providing them with guidance.Students indicated that 'a good teacher makes students believe in him/her, not only as a teacher but also as an advisor' (School-C4).Students also expected teachers to 'respect everyone's beliefs' (School-H2) and 'keep secret(s)' (School-L7) when required.Students also associated 'good' teachers with those that 'felt free' around students.This included socializing, and specifically 'playing football or other entertaining activities' with students (School-F2).Lastly, students appreciated teachers collaborating with them, such as by seeking feedback from them and involving students in decision-making processes.

Classroom practices to support student learning
Another key dimension of processes highlighted by almost all groups was classroom practices to support student learning.In more than two-thirds of groups, students appreciated teachers who provided opportunities for applying learning, especially through homework and learning exercises.According to students, practicing and receiving feedback helped to consolidate and deepen understanding of learnt content.Additionally, students appreciated teachers using multi-modal learning  approaches, such as stories, singing, drawing, smart classrooms, fieldtrips, and relating lesson content to everyday life.For instance, one group described that 'a good teacher should sing or tell stories, while s/he is teaching so that the students do not get bored or doze off' (School-F4).The preference for using group work for promoting student interaction was also discussed: teachers should 'allow (students) to discuss and explain to each other to help them understand the subject' (School-J1).
In 51 groups, a preference for teachers checking student understanding was discussed.A key aspect concerned how 'good' teachers should proactively ask and respond to student questions regularly, especially at the end of lessons.One group stated 'a good teacher answers all students' questions without telling them to find the answers themselves' (School-C5).The importance of follow-up activities beyond direct questions and answers was also noted.This was associated with giving and checking quizzes, homework, lesson revision, and grading student work accurately.Teachers' sensitivity to and catering for different student needs and abilities emerged as other examples related to checking student understanding.Examples primarily related to supporting and involving students who struggled with understanding lessons.During class time, students wished that teachers should 'not only ask questions to high attaining students, s/he also has to make the low attaining students participate' (School-G5).It was also expected that teachers be 'flexible to repeating (instructions or content) if students did not understand' (School-G3).After class, some students wished that teachers could 'make time for students who do not understand his/her subject' (School-K5).More generally, most students hoped teachers could offer help throughout their studies and simplify difficult content to facilitate understanding including through the use of multiple languages for those challenged by English.
Another important classroom practice that characterized 'good' teaching processes was the provision of clear explanations, as discussed in 48 groups.Students shared, 'good' teachers should ensure they give 'enough content' (School-I3) and provide 'explanation of what we do not know so we gain knowledge from him/her' (School-J1).Students also commented on the importance of teachers providing notes related to the lesson taught.In their words, 'a good teacher should write notes on the blackboard instead of giving chalks for students to write' (School-K5).
Professional teaching practices was identified as another sub-theme linked to classroom practices to support learning within almost two-thirds of groups, with a number of supporting examples also reflecting themes raised under the teaching inputs dimension in Section 5.1 (e.g.responsible behaviors and teacher competencies).For example, this sub-theme was described in terms of having good time management to ensure that the syllabus is completed on time.In students' words: 'a good teacher should make sure that we complete the yearly program on time' (School-K3).Other comments reflecting this sub-theme included teachers respecting class time by not taking phone calls, not distracting students, not dozing off, or going off-topic while teaching.Apart from time management, students identified 'good' teachers as having clear handwriting and not venting out personal problems.Lastly, students mentioned that teachers had to prepare lessons well.
Having a fun learning environment was also expressed as a valued classroom practice which helped make learning interesting.In students' words, this meant a 'good' teacher 'should make students laugh when s/he is teaching because it makes a lesson less boring and helps students to understand more what is being taught' (School-F2).

Classroom materials
The third key theme which arose in relation to processes was having access to classroom materials.The most frequently named materials were related to teaching-and-learning, as discussed in over two-thirds of groups.Books emerged as the most desired classroom material and specifically, textbooks, notebooks, and a dictionary.This was closely followed by stationery (e.g.chalk, rulers, and sticks).Interestingly, sticks were predominantly valued by students for classroom management purposes.One group remarked: 'a good teacher brings a stick to punish students who chat during class time' (School-K6).While the general category of teaching aids was also mentioned, few examples elaborated on its meaning, including locally available resources like banana, cup, leaves, and plate.Other noted classroom materials included ICT tools (e.g.computers and projectors) and subject-specific materials (e.g.laboratory equipment, the periodic table, and mathematical sets).
Perhaps unsurprisingly given the recent pandemic, materials related to hygiene were mentioned within 11 groups.This included references to face masks, cleaning cloths, and hand sanitizer.Lastly, administrative materials were noted in a few groups with examples including student attendance books, a teacher identity card, watch, timetable, and bags to hold materials.

Gendered differences under processes
When comparing all-male and all-female groups, there was again strong similarity in the proportions that highlighted each theme and sub-theme (Appendix 2: Table A2).One major difference, however, was under the theme of classroom practices to support student learning, where the sub-theme applying learning was highlighted by 19 all-male groups compared to 18 all-female groups.In terms of the narratives shared -though largely similar -all-female groups provided examples of using fieldtrips and singing unlike all-male groups.Another sub-theme, providing clear explanations, also showed a gendered difference through its emergence in 21 all-female groups as opposed to 13 allmale groups.Examples shared in relation to this sub-theme were similar regardless of gender.

Outcomes
Themes which arose under the dimension of outcomes included the impact of 'good' teachers on students as learners and cultivating positive values (Table 4).

Impact of 'good' teachers on students as learners
In most groups (65), rich discussion around the impact of 'good' teachers on students as learners was evident.As shown in Table 4, these could be divided into more specific impacts.For example, two-thirds of groups shared positive emotions towards the teacher.This was primarily explained in relation to students feeling free around the teacher, which was described in terms of feeling safe, unafraid, and trusting of the teacher.Students further appreciated the feeling of being supported in their learning so that they felt free to raise any questions.Students also expressed having love towards 'good' teachers.One group expressed: 'I can never disappoint him/her' (School-K1).In addition, students shared their wish to be like the 'good' teacher and be equal with him or her.The love for the teacher was also closely associated with improved engagement and benefits in the teaching-and-learning process.For instance, in the following group, students articulated the love for both the teacher and the learning in tandem, since a 'good' teacher makes students: 'like him/her and love the subject s/he teaches' (School-B3).Some students, however, focused less on the teacher themselves.For example, in almost twothirds of groups there was a clear indication of students feeling high subject engagement when being taught by a 'good' teacher.Students discussed their improved understanding in learning.One group shared that a 'good' teacher 'makes me understand his/her subject' (School-E1).Others shared the love towards the subject, and more generally 'feeling the zeal of studying' (School-E3).Others shared that 'good' teachers made them feel like 'always attending his/her class every day' (School-K2).Students also highlighted more tangible impacts brought by 'good' teachers including the acquisition of new knowledge (School-A5).Lastly, students mentioned acquiring new skills which included creative, thinking, research, time management, literacy, and economic skills.
Having positive feelings towards oneself was further expressed in 42 groups.Comments reflected how a 'good' teacher empowered students to feel able and confident at school and beyond.As shared by one student group: 'a good teacher makes students confident at school as well as in everyday life' (School-B3).Other associated feelings included having a sense of pride, being courageous and confident to succeed.Students also pointed to the importance of being happy.This was associated with various feelings of being at ease, such as at 'peace', together with feeling satisfied, not stressed, and comfortable.Other feelings described by students included being motivated, innovative, humble, and patient when taught by 'good' teachers.
Academic achievement additionally arose as a sub-theme within 11 groups.Students shared that a 'good' teacher made them 'work hard and succeed in their studies' (School-L3).Eleven groups further expressed that feeling hopeful about the future towards attaining goals and dreams was an outcome linked to 'good' teachers.One student group expressed: 's/he makes you yearn to do good . . . to believe in a better future' (School-L5).Some students also shared specific goals such as wanting to become a teacher, to become a man/woman, and great.
Lastly, in eight groups, students shared a related sentiment, namely that they enjoy coming to school when being taught by a 'good' teacher.This was also expressed in terms of loving the school.One group communicated: A 'good' teacher 'makes me want to come early to school' (School-K1).

Cultivating positive values
The second key theme was linked to outcomes related to teachers cultivating positive values within and among students.This was discussed in 38 groups and consisted of four sub-themes: moral, vocational, social, and physical development.Most cultural values and those related to a healthy life showed similarity to the desired attributes described in section 5.1.1 and 5.1.2around the desired inputs of 'good' teachers.
In about one-third of groups, students appreciated acquiring moral values for character formation.In students' words, a 'good' teacher 'helps me differentiate right from wrong . . .helps to know cultural values and taboos' (School-D3).The most frequently named values included being polite, patriotic, honest, hardworking, loving, and courageous.
Another sub-theme was raised in 15 groups, concerned students' future in terms of their vocational development and career choice.The primary discussion concerned how 'good' teachers helped students understand and set future goals.One group suggested, 'a good teacher makes me have a goal in life' (School-K3).
Values that support social relationship with others were also highlighted in 13 groups.Discussions were mainly in reference to developing a spirit of teamwork and socializing with others.In students' words, 'a good teacher teaches us to live in harmony with others' (School-F5).Other examples included caring for each other, not being lonely, and being like a family.
Lastly, physical development was raised in seven groups.Students envisioned a 'good' teacher as supporting them to develop a healthy lifestyle.Specific examples included staying clean, avoiding bad influences, preventing disease and illness through learning more about sexual reproductive health, and not taking drugs.

Gendered differences under outcomes
Like inputs and processes, strong similarity was identified in the proportion of groups that highlighted each theme and sub-theme for the dimension of outcomes (Appendix 2: Table A3).The most substantial difference was noted for the sub-theme positive emotions towards the teacher.This was mentioned by 19 all-female groups, as opposed to 10 all-male groups.In terms of the narratives, however, similar descriptions were shared by both groups.

Summary of findings
These findings revealed students' understanding of 'good' teachers via multiple dimensions.Emerging strongly were student sentiments about how they deeply appreciated their relationships with teachers and being taught holistically.Under the three components guiding, the richest discussion was under inputs, and notably a teacher's disposition and responsible behaviors.For processes, while various teaching practices and classroom materials were preferred, positive teacherstudent relationships received the most and richest discussion.This suggested that the ideal learning experience for students involved a broad range of emotions and feelings beyond the cognitive dimension.Teacher support was valued not only for understanding content but also for fostering classroom belonging and making students feel valued.Findings grouped under outcomes showed that students appreciated holistic learning including positive values and being influenced cognitively and affectively by 'good' teachers.Students shared a wide range of positive emotions towards 'good' teachers including feeling safe and loved which in turn supported their motivation and learning engagement.
Our findings additionally identified gendered preferences for 'good' teachers.These included more all-female groups valuing teachers with a positive mindset and a professional teacher image.In addition, more all-male groups valued teachers applying learning, while more all-female groups valued teachers providing clear explanations.Lastly, more all-female groups valued positive emotions towards teachers.

Comparisons with existing research related to teaching quality in Rwanda
When comparing to other Rwandan-based studies, the perspectives shared by students revealed some similarities.More interestingly, a few unique themes were found to be richly and extensively discussed by students.These similarities and differences will be discussed further below according to each teaching quality dimension.

Inputs
For inputs, consensus was observed among students and other stakeholders including teachers, headteachers, and government officials on the theme teacher disposition and sub-theme cultural values (Carter et al., 2021(Carter et al., , 2022)).This indicates that Rwandan cultural values are not only being explicitly and consistently promoted nationally for post-genocide recovery (NURC, 2016), in the CBC (REB/MINEDUC, 2015) and as recommended teaching practice (MINEDUC/REB/Aegis Trust, 2018), but that they are also appreciated by students who are the beneficiary in the system.More importantly, students named a wider range of dispositions they believed 'good' teachers should have and placed emphasis on the importance of responsible behaviors.This suggested, like prior Rwandan studies, that while students also cherished motivated (e.g.Ndabaga et al., 2017) and competent teachers (e.g.Ndayambaje & Ngendahayo, 2014), most of them valued teachers as 'whole' people, and even role models.The detailed discussion around teacher disposition and responsible behaviors resonated closely with Ukobizaba et al. (2021) study, which similarly highlighted the wide range of societal expectations on teachers which went beyond a narrow focus on their teaching skills.

Processes
For processes that define 'good' teachers, the theme classroom practices was similarly discussed indepth by students and other Rwandan stakeholders including teachers, headteachers, and government officials, particularly the importance of active student engagement (Carter et al., 2021(Carter et al., , 2022)).Students highlighted multiple ways of applying learning as a specific dimension of how they would like to engage in class, which aligns with the overarching goal envisioned in the CBC for learners 'to apply what they have learned to real life situations' (REB/MINEDUC, 2015, p.iii).However, the theme of positive teacher-student relationship was discussed more prominently among students, particularly in terms of 'good' teachers fostering a culture of care, and mutual trust within the classroom.
Students' discussion of a positive teacher-student relationship was an important finding.Prior studies in Rwanda have focused largely on the technical elements of teaching such as evaluating classroom methods (e.g.Uwizeyimana et al., 2018), and less on holistically exploring affective pedagogical aspects.The dynamics of the teacher-student relationship has not been discussed in prior Rwandan studies which focused on quality education (e.Nizeyimana et al., 2021) and curriculum implementation (Nsengimana, 2021).These studies instead were concerned with systemic factors which can impact quality education such as insufficient pedagogical resources, large class size, teacher workload, motivation, proficiency, and training.While van de Kuilen et al. (2020) discussed classroom relationships as a factor influencing teachers' use of learner-centered pedagogy, their interest was confined to the power hierarchy between teachers and students, instead of how positive teacher-student relationships were cherished in classrooms and beyond.

Outcomes
Lastly, on outcomes, improving academic performance was a valued goal of students that was also shared in related studies with teachers, headteachers, and government officials in Rwanda (Carter et al., 2021(Carter et al., , 2022)), and other local studies (Ntawiha et al., 2021).What is important to note, however, is that students valued the impact of 'good' teachers beyond more tangible aspects such as academic performance and employment.In-depth appreciation was shown around positive emotions towards teachers, students themselves, and the schooling experience as a whole.Students' appreciation of 'good' teachers in both the processes and outcomes dimensions showed how teaching was valued holistically beyond a technical act of knowledge delivery.Students' views of teachers were consistent with prior literature which conceptualizes teaching beyond the narrow aspect of imparting knowledge.Rather, teachers' roles are complex, comprising managerial aspects as well as affective and emotional dimensions (Demetriou & Wilson, 2009;McNess et al., 2003).The findings were also consistent with a few meta-analyses showing teacher support as a strong predictor of student school belonging (Allen et al., 2018) and general student engagement (Roorda et al., 2011;Tao et al., 2022).

Gendered differences
With the gender-specific groupings in our sampling, we were also able to observe gendered differences in relation to students' views of teaching quality and compare our findings with existing studies.The gender-specific preferences in teaching-and-learning strategies revealed through our study included more all-male groups valuing teachers applying learning and more all-female groups valuing teachers providing clear explanations.In respect to these findings, similar observation was made in Purković et al. (2021) Croatian study where boys valued learning about practical activities more than girls, and boys also found content easier and more useful than girls, hence implying girls would possibly need more structural support.In going beyond teaching-and-learning strategies, for a holistic focus on students' perceptions of teaching quality with gender-specific data, only Jules and Kutnick's (1997) study in Trinidad and Tobago offered an opportunity for comparison with our findings.This study, however, identified gendered patterns which differed from our results.For instance, girls in this study were more likely than boys to cite teachers as being caring and nice, and boys showed significantly greater desire for teacher control and use of punishment.These areas were discussed in our research but with no substantial gendered pattern.The gendered patterns we identified which concerned more only-female groups valuing teachers having positive mindset and students' positive emotions towards teachers were unique in our study.This demonstrates the importance of exploring gendered patterns contextually in line with local socio-cultural norms to avoid inappropriate generalization.

Conclusions and implications
By identifying the prevalence of multiple dimensions students associated with teaching quality, like Carter et al. (2021), this in-depth qualitative study has provided a hierarchical and descriptive framework detailing students' views on 'good' teachers and learning more broadly.Based on previously discussed comparisons, this study makes a novel contribution to the understanding of teaching quality in the Rwandan context, particularly in relation to students' identification of intangible factors as being at the heart of teaching-and-learning.These affective dimensions of teaching quality have been less pronounced in prior literature on teaching in Rwanda and beyond (e.g.Uwizeyimana et al., 2018), and by other stakeholder groups within the LIT initiative (Carter et al., 2021(Carter et al., , 2022)).These dimensions valued by students invite policy actors to consider diversifying criteria used for assessing teachers, and also the quality of education, which has usually focused exclusively on measurable learning outcomes [e.g.Learning Achievement in Rwanda Schools assessment from the (National Examination and School Inspection Authority NESA, 2022)].As this study has demonstrated, this is important as students have clear, informed, and valuable ideas regarding 'good' teachers and how they help students engage in learning.As the direct beneficiaries of education, students' contextualized views on 'good' teachers will therefore provide important learnings and opportunities to improve teacher training, recruitment, and assessment in alignment with pupils' needs.
Without denying the criticality of teachers' knowledge and skills to teaching and learning quality, our findings similarly encourage future research beyond the Rwandan context to actively engage with students in addition to other stakeholder groups when seeking insight and understanding into how teaching-and-learning can be improved.As this study has suggested, it will be helpful to explore a fuller range of attributes and dimensions for teaching quality which reflect teachers' work and influence holistically.Teacher training and related policies can then be enhanced in alignment with students' views, which will ultimately support them in maximizing the benefits from their schooling experience.Moving forward, student perspectives found in this study provide important contributions to the continual reform efforts led by the Rwandan government, which calls for timely improvement of school engagement and student learning outcomes using a 'learner-centered' approach (MINEDUC, 2018a).The achievement of these goals will hardly be possible without an in-depth understanding of students' own preferences and first-hand experiences concerning teaching-and-learning.The identification of gendered preferences is also important to support gender responsive pedagogy as per the curriculum principles, and also educational policies that have been targeting girls as a historically disadvantaged group (MINEDUC, 2008).By comparing the findings from students with those from other stakeholder groups (e.g.headteachers and government officials), while there was alignment between views concerning what makes 'good' teachers, especially around teacher dispositions, a few key themes were identified more strongly from the student data, especially the importance of the teacher-student relationship.
The findings also provide important implications for teacher professional development and policies.Alongside teaching methods, based on the student and other stakeholder consensus on teacher dispositions, teacher training could first support teachers to develop a wider range of desired characteristics and behaviors.Next, in response to students' appreciation of having a positive relationship with teachers, this aspect could similarly be made integral to teacher training and evaluation.More strategies for supporting and building rapport with students could be developed to address specific student needs and the creation of a supportive classroom environment.Furthermore, teachers will need a conducive pedagogical context to be able to attend to affective dimensions in teaching (MINEDUC, 2018a;Sibomana, 2016).
While the current study has demonstrated the potential of students' perspectives in informing policies and practice aimed at improving teaching and learning quality, future qualitative research will benefit from further in-depth engagement with more diverse student groups.This will allow for greater understanding into how students' perceptions of teaching quality and relatedly their educational needs differ according to their socio-economic, cultural, or regional backgrounds as well as disability status, among other factors.Given the Rwandan government's recent increased focus on inclusive education, as evidenced by their revised Special Needs and Inclusive Education policy (2019) and the CBC's objective of ensuring students' individual needs are met (MINEDUC, 2018b; REB/MINEDUC, 2015), understanding variations of teaching quality perceived by different Rwandan students will be key to ensuring not only the fulfilment of these policy visions but also the enhancement of learning as a meaningful and engaging experience for all.

Note
around teachers, to a nuanced appreciation of how varied stakeholders navigate myriad complexities in classroom practices alongside contextual constraints to bring about meaningful changes.
Lydie Shima is a Program Associate at Laterite in Rwanda, with over 6 years of experience managing research projects.She specializes in the management of a portfolio of medium-and large-scale research projects with a focus on education and gender as her sectors of interest.She is currently overseeing a multi-year study on teaching quality and student learning outcomes in numeracy for secondary education as well as an evaluation of academic and 21st century skills at tertiary level.She also led a number of studies to assess students' learning outcomes in literacy for primary education.Lydie leads stakeholder engagements with Government officials in the education sector and implementers of education projects.She holds a Bachelor's Degree with Honours from the University of Rwanda in Agribusiness and Rural Development.
Nidhi Singal scholarship addresses issues of educational inequity among marginalized groups in Southern contexts, with a particular focus on young people with disabilities in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.More details about her work are available at: https://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/people/staff/singal/

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Two samples of student responses.

Table 1 .
Overview of participants.

• What does a good teacher do in class? (
• How

Table 2 .
The inputs possessed by quality teachers.

Table 3 .
How 'good' teachers enact quality processes of teaching.

Table 4 .
The outcomes which students derive from 'good' teachers.
• Vocational development for life and career choice (15) • Social relationship with others (12) • Physical development for healthy life (7)

Table A2 .
How 'good' teachers enact quality processes of teaching.

Table A3 .
The outcomes which quality teachers have impacted on students.