Continuous professional development strategies of Nepali secondary principals: navigating challenges in changing times

ABSTRACT This article delves into the ‘continuous professional development’ (CPD) strategies of three Nepali public secondary principals in complex settings. Through semi-structured interviews, the case studies reveal key CPD themes such as academic qualifications, contextual learning, collaborative networking, leadership training, critical self-reflection, and spiritual dimensions aligned with contextual expectations. The research reinforces the importance of networking and collaboration, in providing targeted CPD for principals, necessitating the negotiation of cultural sensitivities. These insights carry vital implications for school leadership in Nepal and similar international contexts, providing strategies to ensure positive educational outcomes.


Introduction
Nepal's education system, akin to many developing nations, has undergone reforms to improve access and quality, placing demands on public secondary school principals' leadership skills crucial for shaping educational quality and student outcomes (Khanal, Perry, and Park 2021).Challenges include limited resources, complex policies, political barriers, and inadequate opportunities for CPD, thus hindering leadership and educational outcomes (Khanal, Perry, and Park 2021;Singh 2016).In Nepal's diverse educational and socio-cultural contexts, principals must acquire specialised knowledge, such as appreciating contextual expectations, and navigating local challenges while staying informed about global leadership research strategies supporting school success (Bhujel 2021;Pokharel 2017).The question arises: How do principals effectively engage in quality CPD to address the demands of their leadership roles across sensitive and often challenging contexts?
Central to this study was the notable absence of research covering CPD strategies employed by Nepali public secondary principals.The knowledge gap reinforces the urgency of how these leaders develop professionally while concurrently addressing the multifaceted challenges of their roles for their CPD and the targeted support required to enhance overall school outcomes.This research sought to identify CPD strategies employed by principals, who are navigating both opportunities and challenges of leadership in their schooling situations (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020;Clarke and O'Donoghue 2017).

School leadership in Nepal: an overview
Nepali secondary principals, functioning within a Hindu diaspora, assume diverse roles crucial for the operational management of public schools (Liljenberg and Wrethander 2023;Robinson, Lloyd, and Rowe 2008).Research claims leadership quality as pivotal for shaping school performance and developing leadership capacity as essential for educational outcomes (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020;Özdemir et al. 2022;Sebastian and Park 2023).This study unpacks the challenges posed by the centralised framework of Nepal's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.With schools scattered across varied geographical locations, serving students from diverse socio-cultural and marginal socio-economic backgrounds, successful educational outcomes necessitate principals to possess specialised competencies for their schools (Khanal, Perry, and Park 2021).Research in Nepali schools reports an absence of a clear systemic and legal framework defining principals' roles, duties, and responsibilities.This poses a daunting challenge for school leaders (Hamal 2020;Khanal 2018;Khanal and Ghimire 2022).Despite government rhetoric about decentralisation, and granting increased powers to local authorities and principals, an ongoing lack of clarity on principals' roles and responsibilities impacts principals' capacity to drive reforms within struggling public schools.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal's 2015 constitution entrusted individual school management to School Management Committees (SMCs), where principals assumed leadership roles; however, their autonomy remains limited.According to Hamal (2020), principals face constraints in initiating changes in curriculum, teacher recruitment, resource allocation, and policy formulation.The top-down governance model maintains central oversight, detached from regional complexities.Limited CPD opportunities complicate principals' roles, requiring them to devise cost-efficient strategies without government acknowledgment of their vulnerable contexts (Harris 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic further disrupted CPD, straining principals with increased workload, stress, and reliance on self-directed learning.Principals adapted leadership strategies daily to address unforeseen challenges, highlighting the need for innovation within regional socio-cultural and economic contexts.The pandemic's impact exacerbated limited CPD opportunities, diverting resources and hindering access to online learning, intensifying workload and forcing principals to rely on regional-specific strategies to meet major challenges (Harris 2020).
Historically, Nepali education has been influenced by inherited Western leadership models, dominated by the British colonisation of India.This British-Indian hegemony from the mid-nineteenth century still casts a shadow over Nepali educational policies, creating challenges for school leadership in diverse settings.Principals in many respects still cannot ignore the legacy of colonisation (Cravens and Hallinger 2012).Local Nepali intricacies have become central to CPD strategies, carrying risk implications if school leaders are not sensitive to a school's context.Therefore, CPD should be seen as more than personal development tools; because proactive leaders shape the educational outcomes of public schools guided by local needs.Strategies must consider context-specific challenges and opportunities arising from socio-cultural, religious, and economic factors that define communities and their educational needs, often beyond centralist expectations.The challenge is empowering principals with skills and agency to navigate sensitive contexts effectively (Dhakal, Lummis, and Jones 2023;Khanal, Perry, and Park 2021).

Global perspectives on the approaches to principals' CPD
Effective leadership is pivotal for student achievement and school success, necessitating principals' CPD informed by global research and shared leadership capabilities (Fullan 2015;Grissom, Egalite, and Lindsay 2021;Leithwood, Harris, and Hopkins 2020;Liljenberg and Wrethander 2023).Successful principals align CPD with community aspirations and social justice (Forde and Torrance 2017).Without targeted CPD, principals struggle to address diverse infrastructure and human resource challenges, hindering successful learning (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020;Pashiardis and Johansson 2021).The ecology of principals' CPD involves academic study, work experience, and communicative and managerial skills (Northouse 2010).
Leaders must learn from local contexts, engaging in collaborative practices with teachers and the community (Anderson 2017).Context-based leadership is vital as each school is unique due to socio-cultural, educational, and local policy variations (Harris, Jones, and Adams 2016).Principals need to draw insights from day-to-day experiences, fostering a deep understanding of challenges and opportunities within their schools to instil necessary competencies (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020).Leadership is a relational practice that requires confidence with colleagues and the community to achieve contextual outcomes (Branson, Franken, and Penney 2016).
Effective leadership necessitates critical self-reflection and a broader range of contextual skills for the academic well-being of students (Orr 2020).Mezirow (2009) emphasises that transformative leadership models are key to reshaping a school's cultural perspectives and practices.Collaborative professional networks play a crucial role in this transformative process (Reeves and Forde 2004).Fink and Resnick (2001) stress the importance of authentic collaborative engagement as the foundation for leadership preparation and development through praxis.
Generic training sessions may not effectively address specific contextual challenges for all principals, thus demanding tailored leadership programmes aligned with local needs (Dhakal 2016).Leadership development should be positioned in specific socio-cultural, economic, and human resource contexts, recognising the nuanced approach required for diverse communities (Crow and Whiteman 2016).Principals should discern reasonable practices within their local communities, drawing from a range of experiences to inform this praxis (Martin and Osberg 2015).Experimenting with new practices, informed by local contexts and collaborations, facilitates an 'action research approach' for developing innovative leadership in context (Martin and Osberg 2015).Brown and Poortman (2018) advocate for the constructivist nature of collaborating with professional groups, highlighting its advantages in addressing authentic educational challenges and improving school performance, effectiveness, and sustainability, particularly in targeted CPD.This collaborative approach, endorsed by Fullan (2006), underscores the importance of peer interaction in building leadership motivation and capabilities to confront educational and social challenges.Fullan claims such practices foster responsiveness, trust among stakeholders, and a sense of school belongingness, all vital components of professional development in leadership.Hitt and Player (2018) stress the need for frequent self-assessment by principals, seeking alternative ways to improve learning environments, even in impoverished rural settings.Active professional learning communities (Harris and Jones 2010), provide a milestone for principals to enhance leadership skills through shared interventions with other principals and community stakeholders.Additionally, formal educational degrees complement targeted CPD, offering structured knowledge and theoretical frameworks for effective leadership (Harris, Jones, and Huffman 2017).Northouse (2010) maintains that academic learning fosters a commitment to leadership, enabling principals to adapt to changing educational expectations within an academic conceptual framework.

Principals' CPD in South and Southeast Asia
In Southeast Asian countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, the discourse centres on developing tailored CPD frameworks to address unique contextual challenges in diverse school cultures.Common issues include the lack of structured frameworks, limited resources, challenges aligning global policies with local contexts, and unequal access to quality CPD (Faizuddin et al. 2022;Nasreen and Odhiambo 2018;Singh, Rind, and Sabur 2021).Singh, Rind, and Sabur (2021) note that centralised education policies add complexity, compelling schools to rely on ad-hoc training despite evolving local learning needs.In Southeast Asia, trends involve adopting online platforms, peer learning networks, contextualisation, advocacy for policy reform, and integrating leadership practices into specialised CPD in shaping educational responses for circa 700 million people in the region (Faizuddin et al. 2022;Nasreen and Odhiambo 2018;Singh, Rind, and Sabur 2021).

Challenges and barriers to CPD for Nepali secondary principals
Nepali public school principals face challenges in leading across difficult circumstances due to the lack of targeted and appropriately resourced CPD opportunities.Centralised policies limit their authority, further exacerbating issues of insufficient resources, limited training support, and inadequate collaboration, compromising leadership initiatives in vulnerable communities (Joshi 2022;Khanal et al. 2023).Public schools, susceptible to political influences, often lack genuine government and stakeholder support, hindering teaching accountability and a unified vision for equity (Parajuli and Das 2013).Complex challenges, including political conflicts, natural disasters, and the recent pandemic, further stress public school principals (Joshi 2022;Khanal et al. 2023).Insufficient funding and limited principalship agency compound the challenges, impacting preservice training and overall capacity to address regional complexities (Rajbhandari 2016).The government's intervention in providing targeted CPD opportunities is crucial for addressing the leadership gap (Joshi 2022;Khanal et al. 2023).
Nepali principals also contend with demanding workloads, limiting time for quality CPD and professional reflection while managing operational responsibilities (Khanal, Perry, and Park 2021).Establishing meaningful networks is challenging, especially in remote areas with limited platforms and digital resources, hindering knowledge sharing and peer learning (Joshi 2022;Khanal et al. 2023).Additional factors such as role ambiguities, resource access complexities, sickness, political instabilities, and unrealistic expectations contribute to the challenging environment for leadership success (Poudel 2022).
Despite these challenges, this study interprets three secondary principals' CPD strategies as a framework for enhancing professional competencies and facilitating positive learning outcomes.The findings highlight the need for informed government intervention, improved funding, and increased collaboration to support principals in addressing multifaceted challenges and transforming public schools.

Purpose and research question
Research (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020;Brion 2020;Pashiardis and Johansson 2021) underscores the crucial role of targeted CPD for effective secondary leadership.Targeted CPD enables acquiring specialised skills to address specific challenges in public schools' socio-economic and cultural contexts, promoting equity and access (Liljenberg and Wrethander 2023;Robinson, Lloyd, and Rowe 2008).
This study aimed to explore how three public secondary principals refined leadership strategies within unique contexts, addressing two key questions: (1) How did Nepali public secondary principals engage in CPD strategies?(2) What challenges were identified when improving their leadership practices?

Research design
This qualitative case study delves into the CPD strategies of three principals, offering indepth insights within specific educational contexts (Yin 2018).Each 'case' involves an individual principal and their school, prioritising depth over breadth.

Participants selection
Participants were purposefully selected through snowball sampling based on a minimum of five years of leadership experience, successful CPD strategy adoption, and positive school contributions.The initial participant, recommended by a professor involved in leadership training for the Nepal government, suggested others.Public secondary principals were chosen for their diverse challenges in securing CPD opportunities and achieving positive school outcomes, making them key stakeholders contributing to the overall discourse on school performance (Khanal, Perry, and Park 2021;Singh 2016).The participants comprise two males and one female.

Brief information on case study principals and schools
Principal 1: Adarsha, an early career male in his early 40s, higher caste, Hindu, spiritual in nature, from a rural village of central Nepal, in a leadership position for about a decade, with a doctorate in educational leadership.School: Aditi High School, close to the capital city, with about 350 students (K-12), 30 teaching staff, a diverse student and staff population.
Principal 2: Bhawana, a late career teacher and an early career female principal in her 50s, Hindu, in a leadership position for a decade, M. Ed.Degree.School: Bhawani High School, in the capital city, has about 450 students (K-12) and 35 teaching staff, a highly diverse student and staff population.
Principal 3: Chanakya, a mid-career male principal from a lower caste and underprivileged group, Hindu, Master of Philosophy in educational leadership, led this school for nearly a decade.School: Chamunda High School, close to the capital city, has approximately 730 students (K-12) and 30 teachers, a diverse student, and staff population.

Data collection
Semi-structured conversational interviews served as the primary data collection method, fostering comprehensive reflective discussions on CPD strategies and their impact on school performance.Open-ended questions allowed the exploration of context-specific strategies (Howitt 2019;Tasker and Cisneroz 2019).Each participant underwent a face-to-face interview and virtual follow-ups, lasting 45-60 min.Interviews were audio-recorded for accuracy.Guidelines, piloted for relevance, included follow-up prompts.Transcribed and translated into English, data were organised using Nvivo software for efficient management, aligning with the research purpose and questions (Howitt 2019;Tasker and Cisneroz 2019).

Data analysis
Thematic analysis of interview data (Saldaña 2016) involved identifying patterns and themes (Yin 2018).Researchers repeatedly reviewed interview transcripts to intimately understand the content and research context.Initial codes were generated by labelling relevant data sections corresponding to the research questions.Codes helped form broader themes capturing participants' responses.Themes, derived from case findings, were refined to ensure alignment with data and research objectives.Finally, these were integrated with existing literature to provide meaningful insights by identifying implications, thus completing the analysis (Saldaña 2016;Yin 2018).

Trustworthiness and ethical considerations
To ensure the trustworthiness of this research, prolonged engagement was maintained with the participants which confirmed the depth of the information through multiple interviews, for a deeper understanding of the participants in relation to their CPD strategies.An audit trail was maintained to document the research process, enhancing transparency and accountability.Member checking was employed to validate the findings and interpretations.Ethical considerations included informed consent from each participant.Anonymity was maintained by using pseudonyms for participants and their schools, consistent with Australian and Nepali ethical guidelines.

Findings
Despite having several contextual challenges in their school contexts and roles, the participants reported the following CPD strategies employed in their specific situations.

Adarsha's case findings
Amidst the challenges associated with the lack of resources and limited CPD opportunities, Adarsha highlighted the need to rise above the complexities, remain steadfast in their vision, and steer their schools towards teaching and learning success, adapting to the current leadership trends, and accommodating their approaches to lead their schools.Emphasising the experiences from his context to enhance leadership strategies, Adarsha considered his contextual experiences and leadership training programmes as vital components in his CPD.For him, leadership is a process of learning when he maintained: … every moment in school is a learning moment … it is a long journey in which there are many things to learn, and continuous learning supports us to rise above possible storms in the profession and lead with the contemporary winds of change.
This experiential strategy of 'learning and doing' is Adarsha's practical strategy to learn from the practice in his specific context rather than relying explicitly on already established educational leadership theories and principles.To continuously develop and strengthen the overall school capacity, Adarsha countered, 'Although I learned many things theoretically, the best way to learn is through practice.As we get in the real field, we come up with new ideas and insights'.Placing work experience at the top of his CPD strategies list, he expressed the view that experience in context always helped him grow.According to Adarsha, deciding which situational context determines the leadership approach to use: 'I do not stick to a single leadership style because that does not work.I try different approaches, and I evaluate them to see if they fit my context'.Additionally, Adarsha maintained that frequent participation in training courses and seminars kept him informed about global leadership trends.
In addition, managing and succeeding in the school context is the critical component for Adarsha, rather than how proficient or experienced a principal might be.He argued that even if a leader is professionally adept and conversant with the recent developments in the educational leadership field, failing to adapt strategically in context and being unable to maintain continuous 'self' and school improvement results in becoming ' … unproductive, and challenging to continue in the position'.Sharing his contextual story as evidence, he explained: 'Among 15 schools in our municipality, I was the youngest principal.In five years, almost all the schools have changed their principals except our school'.
Adarsha believes that the selection of appropriate leadership strategies determines the overall success of a particular school, concluding that: 'If schools do not achieve a good result, stakeholders are not satisfied, teachers are not satisfied, and that's the end of their leadership in that particular school'.According to Adarsha, principals are driven by their decision-making styles, leadership practices in context, and how they lead by example.
Adarsha espoused a firm conviction that spiritual values supported him in multiple ways to cultivate inclusive vision, and humble behaviour, coupled with a profound apprehension to ameliorate overall well-being amidst the vicissitudes of arduous circumstances no matter how confronting.By immersing himself in the spiritual realm, Adarsha shared the very essence of his involvement in assimilating various leadership virtues, including empathy, compassion, humility, kindness, and connectedness.He asserted: I learned the essence of being human and learned values such as empathy, compassion, and kindness from spirituality.From my immersion in spirituality, I learned to be humble, calm, amiable, caring, and optimistic even in challenging circumstances … as a leader, stakeholders always seek devotion, care, and support.Spirituality has allowed me to develop these values.
Through his spiritual immersion, he harmoniously cultivated those traits along with his leadership behaviours that engendered a profound serenity demonstrated in his leadership roles and behaviours, facilitating the attainment of work-life equilibrium.Hence, his spiritual disposition became an indispensable facet of his CPD, spearheading transformative behaviours to perpetuate positive principal roles and augment the overall performance of his school.He shared his involvement in meditations to retrospectively contemplate school incidents and activities and transformed his leadership strategies, fostering a sense of collectivism.He maintained: When I return home from school, I meditate and reflect on what happened during the day.Then the next day, I change my practices, liberate my leadership ability, and foster my feelings of collectiveness.Spirituality has supported me in facing work pressure which would otherwise lead to confronting situations, jeopardising my position, and creating longterm impacts on the organisation.
Hence, the findings above underscored the potential of spiritual dimensions to instil transformative leadership attitudes and behaviours, intending to enhance the professional strategies of principals, thereby promoting schools' efficacy, and fostering an enhanced equilibrium between work and personal lives.

Bhawana's case findings
To continuously grow and develop as a principal in a government secondary school in a rapidly changing educational leadership landscape, Bhawana discussed several CPD strategies she had adopted.Firstly, she considered personal development opportunities as being ' … a vital professional learning strategy,' adding that ' … for every leader, it helps not only personally but also professionally and, eventually, it benefits the overall development of the school'.In addition to her formal tertiary education qualifications, this participation included attending: ' … a one-month-long professional development training program, specifically designed for the principals of community schools in Nepal'.
Moreover, as an English language teacher at the secondary level, she is closely involved in the Nepal English Language Teachers' Association (NELTA) and various other CPD training programmes and seminars.
Secondly, as Bhawana reflected, networking plays a crucial role in her leadership role: 'Interacting with principals from other public schools in Kathmandu has been a practical and valued foundation on which to improve my learning and leadership practices continually'.In developing these principal networks, she noted: We have a forum for female principals, and we regularly meet and share our problems and solutions.We also share the successful strategies that various principals have implemented in their schools.As policies play an essential role in school leadership, we discuss new approaches that work effectively in multiple schools, and where appropriate, I apply them in my school context.
New insights that might have otherwise been lost are gained in exchanging information on shared challenges, contextual experiences, and success stories.In addition, Bhawana revealed: 'We have an organisation called the School Management Society that includes all the community schools' principals in Kathmandu.It has allowed us to share and discuss the common school issues and find solutions'.
Thirdly, Bhawana highlighted the important role the learning-by-doing strategy played in her CPD.She contends that principals can improve their leadership qualities and professional skills as part of ' … the process of learning by doing'.Accordingly, Bhawana relies on her contextual and situational experiences to apply, learn, and adopt her strategic approaches.Reflecting on her leadership career, she revealed: 'Initially, I was hampered by lacking well-established strategic thinking skills that develop through professional experience'.Over time, making the teacher-to-principal transition developed the necessary skills, as Bhawana made it clear that she has ' … no such problems anymore' as she uses a range of 'different strategies' as she continually develops ' … the skills necessary for school leadership'.When new professional strategies emerge, she ' … shares them with other principals and discusses the positive impacts generated'.Consequently, her learning-by-doing approach and keeping up to date with empirical educational leadership material support her ongoing professional development.

Chanakya's case findings
Chanakya discussed four strategic approaches that he adopted to keep up to date with educational leadership approaches: formal education; networking; learning by doing; and self-reflection and self-realisation.During the visit to his school in Nepal, Chanakya was completing his Master of Philosophy degree at Kathmandu University.As he suggested, tertiary degrees such as this highlight the need to be open to new strategies and apply them in context, adding that 'As an MPhil student of educational leadership and management, my academic knowledge has supported me and motivated me to plan and work more effectively'.Similarly, Chanakya maintained that networking with other community schools' principals had been crucial in improving his workplace performance, making it clear that being part of a network of secondary school principals ' … encouraged a caring and supportive environment', an effective platform in which they meet on a regular basis to share their success stories and support to each other.
In sharing this information, Chanakya indicated that the third strategy, learning by doing, had him to improve his leadership skills.He added: Learning from the contextual experiences has supported me in making improvements and bringing about changes in my leadership performance.With improved skills in applying new methods and seeing the benefits that result, processes are monitored and changed as necessary.In this way, my school moves ahead, and my CPD strategies bring about much-needed changes.
In line with his remaining leadership strategies, Chanakya considered that self-reflection and self-realisation continued to be his significant learning resources when he maintained: In my previous school, while working as a school principal and applying the suggestions and guidelines provided by senior staff and my predecessors, I initially tried to adopt traditional leadership strategies.Intending to be an authoritarian school leader, I kept the teachers under my control.I obliged them to work harder and demanded the expected outputs, disregarding their problems and difficulties.I practised this strategy for a specified period.Ultimately, I failed and changed my leadership style.
Chanakya's narrative above demonstrates how he reflected on his leadership practices, realised the problems, and modified his approaches to bring about contextual changes in his current secondary school leadership role.

Discussion
This section discusses strategies reported from research findings based on the CPD strategies that the three principals adopted in their schools.With the recognition of the increased complexity of public school leadership, it is accepted that this role requires specialised ongoing professional learning to strengthen skills to meet community expectations for learning (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020;Brion 2020;Forde andTorrance 2017: Pashiardis andJohansson 2021).Therefore, schools benefit when principals extend their leadership capabilities through targeted CPD (Liljenberg and Wrethander 2023).

Learning from schools' distinct contexts
Diverse socio-cultural and economic school contexts continue to be confronting (Bell 2019); however, principals learn from these authentic contexts (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020;Clarke and O'Donoghue 2017;Dhakal, Lummis, and Jones 2023;Fullan 2019).This strategy can become more efficient in establishing teaching and learning climate within diverse contexts (Coenen, Hondeghem, and Schelfhout 2021).Importantly, any positive benefits from professional praxis requires years of endeavour, and critical reflection (Barth 2006;Coenen, Hondeghem, and Schelfhout 2021).Any authentic leadership praxis that occurs develops by confronting workplace challenges, given that Nepali principals have fewer CPD opportunities than their Western counterparts (Anderson and Mundy 2014).
Participants emphasised that their contextual experiences enhanced their leadership rather than relying on knowledge gained from research investigating socio-cultural diversity.Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig (2020) claim leadership approaches offer more success in Broader contextual learning is a key source of professional development (Newman 2020), principals emphasised that contextual knowledge from their schools resulted in making more minor ad-hoc decisions that might have been influenced by, and incompatible with, the multiple levels of diversity that exist in the Nepali schools (Franken, Branson, and Penney 2018;Jerdborg 2020).For them, leadership is likened to a protracted, multi-staged journey in which stops and starts are made as principals constantly develop new ideas engendered in their school insights, and strategies focus on sustainable development.The participants emphasised that the professional learning journey was influenced by key factors ranging from workplace experiences to discussion and engagement with school community members, and external networks (Branson, Franken, and Penney 2016).
In emphasising the role of the learning-by-doing strategy in their CPD, participants contended that dealing with situational experiences had equipped them with leadership skills to learn, adapt, and apply strategic approaches in steps and stages (Cunningham and Lochmiller 2020).The participants observed that work-based experiential learning improved their leadership performances (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020;Clarke and O'Donoghue 2017), reconstructed their professional selves and supported systematic strategic moves that transformed personal attitudes and behaviours.While acknowledging academic leadership preparation, adopting a learning-by-doing workplace-embedded learning generated a praxis that was the most effective strategy for their leadership development (Brauckmann, Pashiardis, and Ärlestig 2020;Clarke and O'Donoghue 2017;Cunningham and Lochmiller 2020;Fullan 2019;Hallinger 2018).

Critical self-reflection
Critical self-reflection is seen to transform leadership understandings (Mezirow 2009), and past experiences construct enhanced self-awareness (Burrows 2015), enabling leaders to become agents of change (Mistlberger 2010).Importantly, reflective practices are considered self-assessment tools that promote leadership learning and performance (Hitt and Player 2018;Orr 2020), enabling principals to critically analyse and undertake immediate actions to address workplace complexities (Cunningham 2012).The process of reflecting and recollecting previous strategies is a learning approach in which principals acknowledge problems and bring about multidimensional changes in their leadership (Burrows 2015).
The participants discussed this strategy of self-reflection and self-realisation as transforming their leadership attitudes, behaviours, and practices, which improved student outcomes.Findings reported the use of critical self-reflexivity to interrogate personal viewpoints and leadership perspectives (Field-Springer 2020), emphasising the need for transformation via strategies to identify and modify deeply embedded traditional Nepali leadership stereotypes that included dominating subordinates and demonstrating inequitable and disempowering practices (Pherali 2011).These critical reflections became key learning experiences that transformed principals' personal and professional self-identities (Hick and Furlotte 2009), promoting respect in their schools.

Engaging in CPD training
Given the scarcity of CPD opportunities in Nepali public schools, specific training programmes and seminars is given the financial and resource limitations and despite having a major role in sharpening their leadership skills and updating current educational knowledge (Fink and Resnick 2001).While it is acknowledged that keeping up to date with the latest educational leadership trends is crucial to advancing their professional knowledge, capacity-building, and across-school management performances (Fink and Resnick 2001), opportunities to attend these events are rare.However, findings across cases demonstrated involvement in training programmes that were tailored to meet the contextual realities supported principals to carry out their range of leadership roles more efficiently (Crow and Whiteman 2016).In turn, this strengthened student outcomes despite some research findings demonstrating ambiguous connections between training and workplace performance (Darling-Hammond et al. 2022;Dhakal 2016;Grissom, Mitani, and Woo 2019;Liljenberg and Wrethander 2023).

Networking, collaboration, and peer learning
In pursuing overall school improvement, networking and collaboration are essential components of leadership, underpinned by communities of practice as professional learning strategies (Azorin, Harris, and Jones 2020;Brown and Poortman 2018;Harris and Jones 2010).Supportive forums elevate shared problems and generate solutions that facilitate improved outcomes (Brown and Flood 2020;Bush 2019;Hargreaves and O'Connor 2018).Professional networks support principals in overcoming feelings of alienation in their workplaces, particularly in organisations that must deal with ongoing educational complexities (Brown and Flood 2020;Dor-Haim and Oplatka 2020).Acknowledging these leadership practice concerns, all principals indicated that networking opportunities positively benefitted their attitudes and behaviour in their roles (Martin and Osberg 2015) and supported students' learning (Azorin, Harris, and Jones 2020;Brown and Flood 2020;Drysdale and Gurr 2017;Fullan and Quinn 2016).Active networking increased information exchange, problem solving and sharing of new insights generated from different school contexts.Collectively, these networking partnerships supported principals in broadening their leadership development opportunities (De Neve and Devos 2017; Harris and Jones 2010), linking them with authentic communities of practice that fostered practical knowledge (Hargreaves and O'Connor 2018) as well as exchanging leadership experiences as a resource (Wenger, Trayner, and De Laat 2011).

Postgraduate education
Higher degrees support principals in adopting professional strategies and refining their existing practices with ongoing critical reflection (Harris, Jones, and Huffman 2017).Connecting academic study with authentic work experience promotes enhanced workplace performance (Northouse 2010).The principals claimed tertiary studies motivated and supported them in planning and working more efficiently.The case studies reported that the higher the academic degree, the better their leadership performance became when negotiating authentic gaining additional practical and theoretical knowledge the principals engaged in a more constructive praxis in their responsibilities and gained increased trust and support from the school community and other stakeholders.The case studies reported improved leadership performances facilitated improved school outcomes such as student achievements.Finally, a school's overall performance is greatly influenced by a school leadership team to engage and include others (Fullan 2015;Grissom, Egalite, and Lindsay 2021;Lambrecht et al. 2022;Leithwood, Harris, and Hopkins 2020;Liljenberg and Wrethander 2023).

Spiritual dimensions
The Nepali case findings conveyed the profound role spiritual dimensions played in inspiring and promoting the virtue of the 'common good', instilling the values of compassion, empathy, forgiveness, gratitude, respect, and unconditional love (Gidley 2016).Importantly, spirituality does not necessarily mean religious identification (Fry et al. 2011).While religion involves an element of spiritual behaviour, spirituality enhances creativeness, inquiry, and a transformative disposition (Dantley 2008).Spirituality nurtures ethics of care (Noddings 2012), and it is considered an indispensable characteristic of Nepali school leaders (Shields 2005).The data indicated that inculcating spiritual values strengthened and supported educational environments (Sahu 2021), inspiring and motivating students and teachers, thereby generating the traits of care and compassion (Stockinger 2019), that are considered fundamental in human beings, connecting people to the deeper levels of self-understanding (Houston 2008).
The Nepali study also demonstrated that spirituality encompassed the virtues of performing good deeds and leading by example, contributing appreciably to individual and collective development (Walton and Vialle 2021).These contextual leadership considerations align with Reave (2005) in that spirituality enables Nepali principals to be kind and caring towards those around them.While being enwreathed by seemingly disempowering forces in public school contexts, the principals' spirituality was seen to have propped a sense of calmness, humility, and the peaceful resolution of confronting situations (Noddings 2012).Aligned with the knowledge that spirituality in leaders positively impacts students' outcomes (Lambert 2016), spiritual practices, in this study's findings, indicated significant, improved school effectiveness that created better life-work balance.
Finally, the study concluded that spirituality provides Nepali principals with a means to transform their professional lives, strengthening stakeholder engagement and student outcomes, and enhancing schools' overall teaching and learning performances (Abbas et al. 2021).

Conclusion and implications
This study examined the CPD strategies of three Nepali public secondary principals and their leadership approaches within distinctive schools.The data reported leadership that prioritised collaboration, stakeholder support, and the integration of ethical and spiritual dimensions into CPD.The research underscores the importance of developing leadership competencies within specific school contexts and recommends continuous support for enhanced leadership, to benefit school operations and student learning (Fullan 2015;Lambrecht et al. 2022;Leithwood, Harris, and Hopkins 2020).
arise as the study serves as a roadmap for effective, contextually tailored CPD strategies for current and aspiring Nepali principals.It unpacks the complexities principals face, citing resource constraints and policy intricacies, calling for extra stakeholder and political support.The study addresses the challenges posed by a centralised change-resistant public schooling system, stressing the need for active involvement from educational authorities, policymakers, SMCs, and relevant bodies in supporting targeted principal CPD (Khanal, Perry, and Park 2021).This study contributes to the global understanding of leadership in similar socio-economic and educational contexts, elevating innovative strategies that extend beyond Nepal.It underscores collaboration's critical role amid intensifying conflicts, unjust competitions, and the vulnerability of students in conflicted regions.
Finally, the study acknowledges a Nepali principal's spiritual dimensions, in facilitating humility, compassion, connectedness, and ethical decision-making, prioritising student well-being in a positive school culture.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes on contributors
Shankar Dhakal, is an academic, educational researcher, and leader who has worked as a high school principal, teacher trainer, and lecturer in high school and tertiary settings for over a decade.He is a casual academic at the School of Education, Edith Cowan University (ECU), Australia.His research expertise includes critical pedagogy, educational leadership, transformative educational research, and autoethnography.Geoffrey W. Lummis, is the former Director of the Edith Cowan Institute for Education Research and has worked in preservice education for over 37 years.He is Chair of the Board at a Perth secondary school, and his research interests include leadership, teacher wellbeing, STEM, and Arts education.
Andrew Jones, is the former Associate Dean (Secondary Education) in the School of Education at Edith Cowan University (ECU), Australia.He is an educator with 30 years of experience in Education.Andrew has extensive experience in policy development and enactment, which also form the basis for his research interests.