1. S. Brock Blomberg, Rozlyn C. Engel, and Reid Sawyer, “On the Duration and Sustainability of Transnational Terrorist Organizations,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 54 (2010), pp. 303–330; Steven M. Chermak, Joshua D. Freilich, and Michael J. Suttmoeller, “The Organizational Dynamics of Far-Right Hate Groups in the United States: Comparing Violent and Non-Violent Organizations,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 36 (2013), pp. 193–218; David C. Rapoport, “Terrorism,” in M. E. Hawksworth and Maurice Kogan, eds., Encyclopedia of Government and Politics, Vol. II (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 1061–1082.

2. Blomberg et al., “On the Duration,” pp. 303–330; Edward Crenshaw, Kristopher Robison, and J. Craig Jenkins, “The Organizational Ecology of Terror: How Local, National, and Supranational Environments influence the Longevity of Terrorist Organizations” (paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the American Sociological Association, Las Vegas, August 2011); Audrey Kurth Cronin, “How al-Qaida ends: The Decline and Demise of Terrorist Groups,” International Security 31 (2006): 7–48; Audrey Kurth Cronin, How Terrorism Ends: Understanding the Decline and Demise of Terrorist Campaigns (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009); Seth G. Jones and Martin C. Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End: Lessons for Countering al Qa'ida (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2008); Clark McCauley, “Group Desistance from Terrorism: A Dynamic Perspective,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 1 (2008): 269–293; Erin Miller, “Patterns of Onset and Decline among Terrorist Organizations,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 28 (2012): 77–101; Michael Suttmoeller, Steven Chermak, and Joshua D. Freilich, “The Influence of External and Internal Correlates on the Organizational Death of Domestic Far-Right Extremist Groups,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism (38 [2015]. pp. 734–758).

3. Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

4. Blomberg et al., “On the Duration,” pp. 303–330; Crenshaw et al., “The Organizational Ecology of Terror.”

5. Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218; Rapoport, “Terrorism,” pp. 1061–1082.

6. Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218; Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006); Rapoport “Terrorism” pp. 1061–1082.

7. Ruben Vives. “Las Vegas Shooter Jerad Miller had Numerous Run-ins with Police” (2014). Available at http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-nn-jerad-miller-timeline-20140609-story.html (accessed August 2015).

8. Ed Payne, Suspect in Jewish Center Shootings “Entrenched in the Hate Movement” (2014). Available from http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/14/us/kansas-shooting-suspect-profile/ (accessed August 2015).

9. Southern Poverty Law Center, “Hate Map.” Available at https://www.splcenter.org/hate-map (accessed August 2015).

10. Joshua D. Freilich, Nelson A. Pichardo Almanzar, and Craig J. Rivera. “How Social Movement Organizations Explicitly and Implicitly Promote Deviant Behavior: The Case of the Militia Movement,” Justice Quarterly 16 (1999): 655–683.

11. Donald P. Green and Andrew Rich, “White Supremacist Activity and Crossburnings in North Carolina,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 14 (1998): 263–282.

12. Joshua D. Freilich, Steven M. Chermak, and Joseph Simone Jr., “Surveying American State Police Agencies about Terrorism Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions,” Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (2009): 450–475.

13. Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218; Joshua D. Freilich et al., “Introducing the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB),” Terrorism and Political Violence 26 (2014): 372–384; Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

14. Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

15. Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218.

16. Pete Simi, Radicalization and Recruitment among Right-Wing Terrorists. An Exploratory Approach (Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, 2009).

17. David E. Long, The Anatomy of Terrorism (New York: The Free Press, 1990).

18. Jonathan I. Klein, Corporate Failure by Design: Why Organizations are Built to Fail (Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 2000).

19. Blomberg et al., “On the Duration,” pp. 303–330; Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218; Rapoport, “Terrorism,” pp. 1061–1082.

20. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism.

21. Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218.

22. McCauley, “Group Desistance,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 1 (2008): 269–293; Joseph F. Murphy and Coby V. Meyers, Turning around Failing Schools: Leadership Lessons from the Organizational Sciences (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008); United States Institute of Peace, How Terrorism Ends (1999). Available at http://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/sr990525.pdf (accessed August 2015).

23. Murphy and Meyers, Turning Around Failing Schools, p. 75.

24. Stacia Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of the Economic Downturn, Immigrants, and Political Representation on the White Supremacist Group Organization in the United States,” Sociological Focus 44 (2011), pp. 255–279; Nella Van Dyke and Sarah A. Soule, “Structural Social Change and the Mobilizing Effect of Threat: Explaining Levels of Patriot and Militia Organizing in the United States,” Social Problems 49 (2002), pp. 497–520.

25. Jaison R. Abel, Todd M. Gabe, and Kevin Stolarick, Workforce Skills across the Urban-Rural Hierarchy. (2012). Available at http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr552.pdf (accessed August 2015).

26. Brent L. Smith, Terrorism in America: Pipe Bombs and Pipe Dreams (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994); Richard Florida. “The Geography of Hate,” The Atlantic (2011). Available at http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/05/the-geography-of-hate/238708/ (accessed August 2015).

27. Jeffrey Kaplan and Leonard Weinburg, The Emergence of a Euro-American Radical Right (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998).

28. Jeffrey Ian Ross, “Structural Causes of Oppositional Political Terrorism: Towards a Causal Model,” Journal of Peace Research 30 (1993): 317–329; Philip N. Jefferson and Frederic L. Pryor, “On the Geography of Hate,” Economic Letters 65 (1999): 389–395.

29. Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of Economic Downturn,” pp. 255–279.

30. Florida, “The Geography of Hate.”

31. John Freeman, Glenn R. Carroll, and Michael T. Hannan, “The Liability of Newness: Age Dependence in Organizational Death Rates,” American Sociological Review 48 (1983), pp. 692–710.

32. Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, “The Ecology of Organizational Mortality: American Labor Unions, 1836–1985,” American Journal of Sociology 94 (1988), pp. 25–52.

33. Crenshaw et al., “The Organizational Ecology of Terror.”

34. Jeffrey Kaplan, “Right Wing Violence in North America,” Terrorism and Political Violence 7 (1995): 44–95.

35. Argenti, Corporate Collapse; Charles W. L. Hill and Frank T. Rothaermel, “The Performance of Incumbent Firms in the Face of Radical Technological Innovation,” Academy of Management Review 28 (2003): 257–274; Murphy and Meyers, Turning Around Failing Schools.

36. Hill and Rothaermel, “The Performance of Incumbent,” pp. 257–274.

37. Maura Conway, “Terrorism and the Internet: New Media-New Threat?,” Parliamentary Affairs 59 (2006), pp. 283–298; Gabriel Weimann, WWW.terror.net: How Modern Terrorism Uses the Internet (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2004); Gabriel Weimann, Terror on the Internet: The New Arena, the New Challenges (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2006).

38. Murphy and Meyers, Turning Around Failing Schools.

39. W. Richard Scott, Organizations: Rational, Natural and Open Systems (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1992).

40. Cronin. “How al-Qaida Ends,” pp. 7–48; Cronin, How Terrorism Ends; Audrey Kurth Cronin, “How Terrorist Campaigns End,” in Tore Bjorgo and John Horgan, eds., Leaving Terrorism Behind: Individual and Collective Disengagement (New York: Routledge, 2009), pp. 49–65; Dipak K. Gupta, Understanding Terrorism and Political Violence: the Life Cycle of Birth, Growth, Transformation, and Demise (New York: Routledge, 2008); Christopher C. Harmon, Terrorism Today (New York: Routledge, 2008); Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End; Assaf Moghadam. “Failure and Disengagement in the Red Army Faction,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 35(2012), pp. 156–181; Transnational Terrorism, Security and the Rule of Law, Concepts of Terrorism; Analysis of the Rise, Decline, Trends and Risk (2008). Available at www.transnationalterrorism.edu; United States Institute of Peace, How Terrorism Ends.

41. Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

42. Murphy and Meyers, Turning Around Failing Schools.

43. Argenti, Corporate Collapse; Murphy and Meyers, Turning Around Failing Schools.

44. Stuart Slatter, Corporate Turnaround: A Guide to Turnaround Management (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1984).

45. Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of Economic Downturn,” pp. 255–279.

46. Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

47. Joshua D. Freilich, American Militias: State-Level Variations in Militia Activities (New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing, 2003); Rory McVeigh. “Structured Ignorance and Organized Racism in the United States,” Social Forces 82 (2004): 895–936.

48. Green and Rich, “White Supremacist Activity,” pp. 263–282; McVeigh, “Structured Ignorance,” pp. 895–936.

49. Howard E. Aldrich, Organizations and Environments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979).

50. Sidney Tarrow, “States and Opportunities: The Political Structuring of Social Movements,” in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 41–61.

51. Ibid., pp. 41–61.

52. Hanspeter Kreisi, “The Organizational Structure of New Social Movements in a Political Context,” in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 152–184.

53. William D. Berry, Evan J. Ringquist, Richard C. Fording, and Russell L. Hanson, “Measuring Citizen and Government Ideology in the American States, 1960–93,” American Journal of Political Science 42 (1998), pp. 327–348; Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of Economic Downturn,” pp. 255–279.

54. Berry et al., “Measuring Citizen,” pp. 327–348; Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of Economic Downturn,” pp. 255–279.

55. Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of Economic Downturn,” pp. 255–279.

56. Kent Layne Oots, “Organizational Perspectives on the Formation and Disintegration of Terrorist Groups,” Terrorism 12 (1989), pp. 139–152.

57. Argenti, Corporate Collapse; Donald B. Bibeault, Corporate Turnaround: How Managers Turn Losers into Winners (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982); Robert D. Boyle and Harsha B. Desai, “Turnaround Strategies for Small Firms,” Journal of Small Business Management 29 (1991), pp. 33–42.

58. Arthur Stinchcombe, “Organizations and Social Structures,” in James G. Marsh, ed., Handbook of Organizations (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965), p. 148.

59. Stinchcombe, “Organizations and Social Structure,” pp. 142–193.

60. Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

61. John Horgan, Walking Away From Terrorism: Accounts of Disengagement from Radical and Extremist Movements (New York: Routledge, 2009); Oots, “Organizational Perspectives,” pp. 139–152.

62. Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

63. Cronin, How Terrorism Ends; Rex. A. Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism: Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why? (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1999); McCauley “Group Desistance,” pp. 269–293.

64. Freilich et al., “Critical Events in the Life,” pp. 497–530; Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism; McCauley “Group Desistance,” pp. 269–293; Transnational Terrorism, Security and the Rule of Law, Concepts of Terrorism.

65. Freilich et al., “Critical Events in the Life,” pp. 497–530; Mark Hager, Joseph Galaskiewicz, Wolfgang Bielefeld, and Joel Pins, “Tales from the Grave: Organization's Accounts of Their Own Demise,” in Helmut K. Anheier, ed., When Things Go Wrong: Organizational Failures and Breakdowns (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999), pp. 51–69.

66. Argenti, Corporate Collapse.

67. Cronin, How Terrorism Ends; Oots, “Organizational Perspectives,” pp. 139–152.

68. Horgan, Walking Away From Terrorism; Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End; McCauley “Group Desistance,” pp. 269–293; Transnational Terrorism, Security and the Rule of Law, Concepts of Terrorism.

69. See Oots, “Organizational Perspectives,” pp. 139–152.

70. Cronin, How Terrorism Ends.

71. Oots, “Organizational Perspectives,” pp. 139–152.

72. Cronin, “How al-Qaida Ends,” pp. 7–48; Hoffman, Inside Terrorism; Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

73. Rapoport, “Terrorism” pp. 1061–1082; Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

74. Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

75. Southern Poverty Law Center, “Hate Map.” Available at http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/hate-map (accessed August 2015); Steven M. Chermak, Joshua D. Freilich, and Zachary Shemtob, “Law Enforcement Training and the Domestic Far Right,” Criminal Justice and Behavior 36(2009), pp. 1305–1322.

76. Chip Berlet and Stanislav Vysotsky. “Overview of U. S. White Supremacist Groups,” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 34(2006), pp. 11–48.

77. Timothy G. Baysinger, “Right-Wing Group Characteristics and Ideology,” Homeland Security Affairs 2(2006): 1–19; Jeffrey Kaplan, “Right-Wing Violence in North America,” Terrorism and Political Violence 7(1995): 44–95.

78. Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview of U. S. White,” pp. 11–48; Stanislav Vysotsky, “Understanding the Racist Right in the Twenty-First Century: A Typology of Modern White Supremacist Organizations” (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, San Francisco, 2004).

79. Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).

80. Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview of U. S. White,” pp. 11–48; Betty A. Dobratz, “The Role of Religion in the Collective Identity of the White Racialist Movement,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 40(2001), pp. 287–302.

81. Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview of U. S. White,” p. 21.

82. Ibid., pp. 21–22.

83. Ibid., p. 27.

84. Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview of U. S. White,” p. 27; Robert Futrell and Pete Simi, “Free Spaces, Collective Identity, and Persistence of U. S. White Power Activism,” Social Problems 51(2004): 16–42.

85. Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview of U. S. White,” p. 30.

86. Ibid. pp. 31–33.

87. Ibid., pp. 11–48.

88. Blomberg et al., “On the Duration,” pp. 303–330; Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218; Hoffman, Inside Terrorism; Rapoport, “Terrorism,” pp. 1061–1082.

89. Crenshaw et al., “The Organizational Ecology of Terror.”

90. Blomberg et al., “On the Duration,” pp. 303–330.

91. Gary LaFree and Erin Miller, “Desistance from Terrorism: What Can We learn from Criminology?” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict: Pathways toward Terrorism and Genocide 1(2008): 203–230.

92. Miller, “Patterns of Onset,” p. 78.

93. Blomberg et al., “On the Duration,” pp. 303–330; Crenshaw et al., “The Organizational Ecology of Terror.”

94. See Freilich et al., “Critical Events in the Life,” pp. 497–530; Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

95. Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid.

98. Ibid.

99. Freilich et al., “Critical Events in the Life,” pp. 497–530; Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

100. Joshua D. Freilich, Steven D. Chermak, Roberta Belli, Jeff Gruenewald, and William S. Parkin, “Introducing the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB),” Terrorism and Political Violence 26(2014): 372–284.

101. Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218.

102. Freilich et al., “Introducing the United States”; Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218.

103. A continuous measure of years to death was considered as a dependent variable. However, the requirement that groups exist for three concurrent years post 1990 did not preclude groups from existing for a number of years prior to 1990, as long as they also existed for three concurrent years post 1990. Open source information for the years prior to 1990 was scarce and resulted in large amounts of missing data for several independent variables. For example, no group density information is available prior to 1990. The amount of missing data was so extensive that imputation or substitution methods would not have been appropriate.

104. See Center for International Development and Conflict Management, “Minorities at Risk: Organizational Behavior,” 2008. Available at http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/data/marob/me_marob_sept08_codebook.pdf (accessed August 2015).

105. Abel et al., Workforce Skills; Florida, “The Geography of Hate”; Kaplan and Weinburg, The Emergence of a Euro-American; Smith, Terrorism in America.

106. Crenshaw et al., “The Organizational Ecology of Terror.”

107. Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

108. Berry et al., “Measuring Citizen,” pp. 327–348; Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of Economic Downturn,” pp. 255–279.

109. Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of Economic Downturn,” p. 263.

110. Ibid., p. 263; Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

111. Gilliard-Matthews, “The Impact of Economic Downturn,” p. 263.

112. Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

113. Chermak et al., “The Organizational Dynamics,” pp. 193–218.

114. Conway, “Terrorism and the Internet,” pp. 283–298; Weimann, WWW.terror.net; Weimann, Terror on the Internet.

115. Cronin, How Terrorism Ends; Horgan, Walking Away From Terrorism; Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End; McCauley “Group Desistance,” pp. 269–293; Oots, “Organizational Perspectives,” pp. 139–152; Transnational Terrorism, Security and the Rule of Law, Concepts of Terrorism.

116. Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview of U. S. White,” p. 17.

117. Cronin, How Terrorism Ends; Freilich et al., “Critical Events in the Life,” pp. 497–530; Christopher Hewitt, Understanding Terrorism in America: From the Klan to Al Qaeda (New York: Routledge, 2003); Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism; McCauley, “Group Desistance,” pp. 269–293; Moghadam, “Failure and Disengagement,” pp. 156–181; Transnational Terrorism, Security and the Rule of Law, Concepts of Terrorism.

118. Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview of U. S. White,” p. 17.

119. Jack B. Moore, Skinheads Shaved for Battle (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1993).

120. Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

121. All models in this analysis were subjected to collinearity diagnostics. All VIF were less than 2.5.

122. Conway. “Terrorism and the Internet,” pp. 283–298; Weimann, WWW.terror.net; Weimann, Terror on the Internet.

123. Joshua D. Freilich and Steven M. Chermak, “Preventing Deadly Encounters between Law Enforcement and American Far-Rightists,” Crime Prevention Studies 25 (2009), pp. 141–172; Michael J. Suttmoeller, Jeff Gruenewald, Steven M. Chermak, and Joshua D. Freilich, “Killed in the Line of Duty: Comparing Police Homicides committed by Far-Right Extremists to all Police Homicides,” Law Enforcement Executive Forum 13(2013): 45–64.

124. Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

125. Berlet and Vysotsky, “Overview of U. S. White,” pp. 17–21; Jack B. Moore, Skinheads Shaved for Battle (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1993).

126. Moore, Skinheads Shaved for Battle.

127. Rapoport, “Terrorism,” pp. 1061–1082; Jones and Libicki, How Terrorist Groups End.

128. Cronin, How Terrorism Ends; Freilich et al.,“Critical Events in the Life,” pp. 497–530; Hewitt, Understanding Terrorism in America; Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism; McCauley “Group Desistance,” pp. 269–293; Moghadam, “Failure and Disengagement,” pp. 156–181; Transnational Terrorism, Security and the Rule of Law, Concepts of Terrorism.

129. Miller, “Common Syndromes of Business Failure,” pp. 43–53; Murphy and Meyers, Turning Around Failing Schools; Schendel et al., “Corporate Turnaround Strategies,” pp. 3–11; Schuchman and White, The Art of the Turnaround; Slatter, Corporate Turnaround; Zimmerman, The Turnaround Experience.

130. Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

131. Conway, “Terrorism and the Internet,” pp. 283–298; Weimann, www.terror.net; Weimann, Terror on the Internet.

132. Suttmoeller et al., “The Influence of External,” pp. 734–758.

133. Murphy and Meyers, Turning Around Failing Schools.

134. Ibid.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid.

142. Hager et al., “Tales from the Grave,” pp. 51–69.