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India's nuclear test in May 1974 created a predicament for US nuclear diplomacy. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's immediate response was low-key, but he became worried about the spread of nuclear capabilities to the ‘next country’. Abandoning his previously dismissive stance toward the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Kissinger concluded that Washington had to work with allies and even cold-war adversaries to check proliferation. He approved a number of initiatives, one of which was to co-ordinate the nuclear-export policies of major states, the United States, the Soviet Union, Canada, France, Japan, the United Kingdom, and West Germany. To make that possible, during 1974–5, Kissinger supported a complex diplomatic effort to create what became a major institution in the non-proliferation regime, the Nuclear Suppliers’ Group (NSG), and a set of guidelines for regulating the export of nuclear equipment, materials, and technology.
Notes
1. State Department cable 104623 to US Mission Geneva, ‘Indian Nuclear Test’, 19 May 1974, F[reedom] o[f] I[nformation] A[ct] [copy at National Security Archive]; I. Anthony, C. Ahlström, and V. Fedchenko, Reforming Nuclear Export Controls: The Future of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (Oxford, 2007).
2. J. Samuel Walker, ‘Nuclear Power and Nonproliferation: The Controversy Over Nuclear Exports, 1974–1980’, Diplomatic History, xxv (2001), 215–49.
3. M.J. Brenner, Nuclear Power and Nonproliferation: The Remaking of U.S. Policy (New York, 1981), 64–5; S.A. Schneider, The Oil Price Revolution (Baltimore), 341–6.
4. J. Suri, ‘Henry Kissinger and the Geopolitics of Globalization’ in N. Ferguson et al. (eds), The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge, 2010), 180.
5. See also Brenner, Nuclear Power and Nonproliferation, 71–5, 93–7.
6. Walker, ‘Nuclear Power and Nonproliferation’, 216; Brenner, Nuclear Power and Nonproliferation, 3–4, 69–70, 79; memcon, ‘Indian Nuclear Explosion; World Food Conference; Pacific Coast Tanker; NATO Declaration; Middle East Trade Bill’, 18 June 1974, D[igital] N[ational] S[ecurity] A[rchive]. See also Astrid Forland, ‘Coercion or Persuasion? The Bumpy Road to Multilateralization of Nuclear Safeguards,’ The Nonproliferation Review XVI (2009). 47–64.
7. Brenner, Nuclear Power and Nonproliferation, 68–70.
8. ‘Under Secretary Sisco's Principals and Regionals Staff Meeting, Friday, June 21, 1974’, 24 June 1974, [College Park, MD, National Archives and Records Administration, Department of State Records], R[ecord] G[roup] 59, [Records of Executive Secretariat,] [Transcripts of Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's] Staff Meetings, [1973–1977], box 4.
9. F.J. Gavin, ‘Nuclear Nixon: Ironies, Puzzles, and the Triumph of Realpolitik’ in F. Logevall and A. Preston (eds), Nixon in the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969–1977 (New York, 2008), 139–40; US State Department, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1972, Volume E-2, Documents on Arms Control and Nuclear Proliferation [Washington, DC, n.d.], Electronic Publication, Document 58, Conversation between President Nixon and Assistant to National Security Affairs Kissinger, 13 June 1972, 11:43 a.m.–1:18 p.m..; H. Kissinger, The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy (New York, 1962), 258–9.
10. Gavin, ‘Nuclear Nixon’, 139–40; S. Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid: The Quest for American Atomic Supremacy from World War II to the Present (Chapel Hill, 2010), 282–3, 286–8; Marshall Green to Ambassador Johnson, ‘Japanese Ratification of NPT: Letter to Dr. Kissinger’, 5 June 1972, RG 59, Papers of U. Alexis Johnson, box 32, Henry Kissinger 1972; A. Cohen and W. Burr, ‘Israel Crosses the Threshold’, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, lxii (2006), 22–30.
11. N.B. Tucker, Strait Talk United States-Taiwan Relations and the Crisis with China (Cambridge, 2009), 78–9, and U.S. Embassy Taipei cable 7051 to State Department, ‘FonMin Reaffirms ROC Decision …,’ 23 Nov. 1973, [College Park, MD: National Archives and Records Administration], A[ccess to] A[rchival D[atabases] [Central Foreign Policy Files, Electronic Cables, 1973–1976].
12. F.W. Schmidt, ‘The Zangger Committee: Its History and Future Role’, The Nonproliferation Review (1994), 38–9; Anthony, Ahlström, and Fedchenko, Reforming Nuclear Export Controls, 14–16.
13. Department of State, ‘Action Plan for Implementing NSDM 235’, 25 March 1974, [Yorba Linda, CA, Richard M. Nixon Presidential Library], N[ational S[ecurity] C[ouncil] I[nstitutional] F[iles,] box H-242, NSDM-235.
14. George S. Springsteen to the Secretary, ‘Analytical Staff Meeting’, 11 July 1974, enclosing Winston Lord memo to the Secretary on ‘Analytical Staff Meeting on Nuclear Non-Proliferation’, n.d., with ‘Discussion Paper on U.S. Non-Proliferation Policy’ attached, RG 59, Executive Secretariat Records. Memos of the Executive Secretariat 1964–1975, box 12, S/S Staff Meeting; W.G. Gray, ‘Brandt's Government and the Nuclear Question’ in C. Fink and B. Schaefer, Ostpolitik, 1969–1974: European and Global Responses (Washington, D.C., 2009), 260–1.
15. Kissinger to the President, ‘NSSM 150: U.S. Policy on Transfer Abroad of Highly Enriched Uranium for Power Reactors’, 1 Oct. 1973; National Security Decision Memorandum 235, ‘NSSM 150, United States Policy on Transfer of Highly Enriched Uranium for Fueling Power Reactors’, 4 Oct. 1973; and NSC Under Secretaries Committee, ‘Action Program Concerning Security and Related Aspects of Growth and Dissemination of Nuclear Power Industries [NSDM 235]’, 5 April 1974, NSCIF, box H-242, NSDM-235.
16. National Security Decision Memo 255, ‘Security and Other Aspects of the Growth and Dissemination of Nuclear Power Industries’, 3 June 1974, DNSA.
17. Memo to the Secretary from Joseph J. Sisco, 7 June 1974, with memos attached, RG 59, P[olicy] P[lanning] C[ouncil] [Director's Files (Winston Lord), 1969–1977], box 344, June 1974; ‘Under Secretary Sisco's Principals and Regionals Staff Meeting, Friday, June 21, 1974’, 24 June 1974, RG 59, Staff Meetings, box 4.
18. Memcon with Ambassador Dinitz, 21 June 1974 and memcon, ‘Indian Nuclear Explosion; World Food Conference; Pacific Coast Tanker; NATO Declaration; Middle East Trade Bill’, 18 June 1974, all in DNSA. For Kissinger on risks of nuclear conflict, see W.R. Smyser to Dick Campbell, ‘Memcon for [Australian] Ambassador Plimsoll's Visit on January 30, 1974’, DNSA.
19. Memcon, ‘Energy; North Sea Oil; Foreign Assistance, Nuclear Non-Proliferation; CSCE; Trade Bill’, 7 July 1974, DNSA.
20. Springsteen to the Secretary, ‘Analytical Staff Meeting’, 11 July 1974, enclosing ‘Discussion Paper on U.S. Non-Proliferation Policy’.
21. Kissinger, The Necessity for Choice, 253–4.
22. Brenner, Nuclear Power and Non-Proliferation, 14–61; Winston Lord to Mr. Sisco and Mr. Sievering, 27 June 1974, with attachments, PPC, box 344, June 1974.
23. M. Del Pero, The Eccentric Realist: Henry Kissinger and the Shaping of American Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 2010), 9–10; ‘The Secretary's Analytical Staff Meeting on Non-Proliferation, Friday, August 2, 1974, 3:00 p.m.’, 8 Aug. 1974, RG 59, Staff Meetings, box 4; F.C. Iklé and W. Lord, ‘Analytical Staff Meeting on Non-Proliferation Strategy’, with Kissinger testimony attached, 31 July 1974, PPC, box 344, July 1974.
24. Ibid.
25. For the French stance, see Paris embassy cable 22150, ‘French and Non-Proliferation’, 19 Sep. 1975, AAD.
26. W. Lord and F. Iklé, ‘An Approach to France on Nuclear Safeguards and Export Policy’, 19 Sep. 1974, attached to F.C. Iklé, W. Lord, and H. Sonnenfeldt to the Secretary, ‘Follow-Up with French on Nuclear Export Controls’, 17 Oct. 1974, with attachments, RG 59, PPC, box 369, WL Sensitive Non-China.
27. ‘The Secretary's Analytical Staff Meeting on Non-Proliferation, Friday, August 2, 1974, 3:00 p.m.’, 8 Aug. 1974. The transcript recounts Kissinger as saying ‘deliberation’ instead of ‘proliferation’, but the context suggests a stenographical error.
28. M. Trachtenberg, ‘The French Factor in U.S. Foreign Policy during the Nixon-Pompidou Period, 1969–1974’, Journal of Cold War Studies, xii (2011), 24–51; P. Lellouche, ‘Giscard's Legacy: French Nuclear Policy and Nonproliferation, 1974–1981’ in R. Boardman and J. Keeley (eds), Nuclear Exports and World Politics: Policy and Regime (New York, 1983), 40–1; memcons, ‘Conversation following Dinner hosted by French Foreign Minister Jean Sauvagnargues’, 4 July 1974 and, ‘U.S.-Australian Relations’, 21 Aug. 1974, both in DNSA.
29. Winston Lord to Sonnenfeldt et al., ‘Non-Proliferation Policy’, 13 Aug. 1974, PPC, box 344, August 1974.
30. Ibid; R. Nixon, International Economic Report of the President, Transmitted to the Congress February 1974 (Washington, D.C., 1974), 51.
31. Fred C. Iklé and Winston Lord, ‘Analytical Staff Meeting on Non-Proliferation Strategy’, 31 July 1974.
32. Fred C. Iklé and Winston Lord to the Secretary, ‘US Policy on Nuclear Proliferation’, 26 Aug. 1974, enclosed with Reginald Bartholomew to Robert Duemling, ‘Preparations for Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 29 Nov. 1974, RG 59, PPC, box 348, Nov. 1974.
33. Memcon, President Ford meeting with Gromyko, 21 Sep. 1975, DNSA.
34. Fred C. Iklé, Winston Lord, and Helmut Sonnenfeldt to the Secretary, ‘Follow-Up with French on Nuclear Export Controls’, 17 Oct. 1974, with attachments, RG 59, PPC, box 369 WL Sensitive Non-China; memcon, ‘Secretary Kissinger's Meeting with Canadian Foreign Secretary MacEeachen’, 24 Sep. 1974, RG 59, [Central Foreign Policy Files, 1974] P[aper] R[eels, copy provided by Department of State].
35. Fred Iklé, Winston Lord, and Helmut Sonnenfeldt to the Secretary, ‘Follow-up with French on Nuclear Export Controls’, 17 Oct. 1974; Fred Iklé, Winston Lord, and Helmut Sonnenfeldt to the Secretary, ‘Talks on Reactor Safeguards and Related Matters with the Soviets on October 15’, 5 Oct. 1974, and Winston Lord to the Secretary, ‘Briefing Allies on Export Controls’, 22 Oct. 1974, all in RG 59, PPC, box 369, WL Sensitive Non-China; State Department cable 227098 to Embassy Moscow, ‘Nuclear Safeguards Consultations’, 16 Oct. 1974, FOIA release; Secretary's Staff Meeting, Monday, 9 Dec. 1974, RG 59, Staff Meetings, box 5.
36. Howard Meyers to Members of the General Advisory Committee to the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, ‘Summary of Arms Control Developments Since Last GAC Meeting and Suggestions for Meeting of July 16–17, 2975’, 14 July 1975, FOIA release; State Department cable 241929 to Embassy Tokyo, ‘Coordination of Nuclear Exports’, 2 Nov. 1974, AAD.
37. State Department cable 269531 to Embassy Moscow, ‘Nuclear Safeguards Consultations’, 9 Dec. 1974, AAD; memo for Lt. General Brent Scowcroft from George S. Springsteen, State Department, ‘Briefing Paper on Non-Proliferation’, 31 Dec. 1974, 1974 P-Reel. For the extensive discussions with the Soviets during October-November 1974, see series of messages on ‘Nuclear Safeguards Consultations’, AAD.
38. Memo for Secretary Kissinger from Helmut Sonnenfeldt and Winston Lord, ‘Nuclear Safeguards Discussions at Martinique’, 4 Dec. 1974, attached to ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference French Participation’, 26 March 1975, 1975 P-Reel. See also Lellouche, ‘Giscard's Legacy: French Nuclear Policy and Nonproliferation, 1974–1981’, 41.
39. Ibid; George S. Vest to the Acting Secretary, ‘French Views on Common Supplier Nuclear Export Policies’, 13 March 1975, attached to Vest to the Secretary, ‘French Foreign Minister's Response on Nuclear Suppliers Meeting’, 9 April 1975, 1975 P-Reel; U.S. Mission Vienna to State Department, ‘FRG Views on NPT Matters, Roth Visit to US’, 30 Aug. 1974, AAD; State Department cable 241929 to Embassy Tokyo, ‘Coordination of Nuclear Exports’, 2 Nov. 1974, AAD; State Department cable 13695 to Embassy Tokyo, ‘Nuclear Exporters Conference: Japanese Intentions’, 21 Jan. 1975, AAD. For French-German ‘front’, see Lellouche, ‘Giscard's Legacy: French Nuclear Policy and Nonproliferation, 1974–1981’, 41–2.
40. Secretary's Staff Meeting, 9 Dec. 1974, Staff Meetings, box 5; C. G. Jackson to Mr. Bridges, 14 April 1977, enclosing memcon, ‘European Unity; Nuclear Proliferation’, 16 Dec. 1974, DNSA; Georges-Henri Soutou, ‘La France et la non-prolifération nucléaire’, Revue historiques des armées, xxlxii (2011); Lellouche, ‘Giscard's Legacy: French Nuclear Policy and Nonproliferation, 1974–1981’, 40–1.
41. Secretary Staff Meeting, 20 Dec. 1974, Staff Meetings, box 5.
42. George Vest to the Secretary, ‘French-US Bilateral Talks’, 14 Jan. 1975, attached to Winston Lord to the Secretary, ‘Next Steps for Nuclear Suppliers’ Conference’, 16 Jan. 1975, RG 59, PPC, box 368, ‘WL Sensitive Non-China’, 75.
43. Memcon, ‘US/French Talks on Non-Proliferation’, 28 Feb. 1975. For analysis of the French position, see memos attached to George Vest to the Secretary, ‘French Foreign Minister's Response on Nuclear Suppliers Meeting’, 9 April 1975, P-Reel 1975.
44. Memcon, ‘US/French Talks on Non-Proliferation’, 28 Feb. 1975, attached to ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference/French Participation’, 26 March 1975, 1975 P-Reel 1975.
45. Ibid.
46. State Department cable 46877 to Embassy Paris, ‘Nuclear Exporters Meeting’, 3 March 1975 and State Department cable 65502 to Consulate Jerusalem, ‘Action Memorandum: Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 23 March 1975, both in 1975 P-Reel.
47. Memcon, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 26 March 1975, DNSA. For the Brazilian–German nuclear deal, see W.G. Gray, ‘Commercial Liberties and Nuclear Anxieties: The German-American Feud over Brazil, 1975–1977’, SHAFR Conference Paper (copy courtesy of the author).
48. Memcon, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 26 March 1975.
49. State Department cable 69790 to Embassy Paris, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 27 March 1975, attached to George Vest to the Secretary, ‘French Foreign Minister's Response on Nuclear Suppliers Meeting’, 9 April 1975, 1975 P-Reel.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid; State Department cable 95033 to Embassy Paris, ‘Exploratory Meeting of Nuclear Suppliers’, 19 April 1975, AAD; Soutou, ‘La France et la non-prolifération nucléaire’.
52. G.S. Vest, W. Lord, and H. Sonnenfeldt, ‘Netherlands Participation in the Proposed Nuclear Suppliers’ Conference’, 5 Feb. 1975, RG 59, PPC, box 352, February 1–15, 1975.
53. State Department cable 81481 to Embassy Moscow, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, and State Department cable 81856 to Embassy London et al., ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, both 10 April 1975, and Embassy Moscow cable 5089 to State Department, ‘Soviet Comments on Nuclear Exporters Meeting’, 12 April 1975, all in AAD.
54. ‘Substantive U.S. Position and Issues’, n.d. [circa 19 April 1975], and J.M. Lodal, H. Sonnenfeldt, and D.D. Elliott’, Verification Panel Meeting on Non-Proliferation Saturday, April 19, 1975 – 10:00 a.m.’, 18 April 1975, [Ann Arbor MI, Gerald R.] Ford Library, N[ational] S[ecurity] C[ouncil] I[nstitutional] F[iles,] box 3, Verification Panel Meeting 4/19/75 (1) and (3).
55. Ibid; memcon, ‘Pakistan: U.S. Policy on Nuclear Issues’, 8 April 1975, 1975 P-Reel.
56. Verification Panel Meeting, ‘Nuclear Non-Proliferation’, 19 April 1975, Ford Library, NSCIF, box 4, Verification Panel Mtg., 4/19/1975.
57. Embassy London cable 6168 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference (Preliminary)’, 23 April 1978, AAD; State Department Briefing Paper, ‘The Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, June 1975, RG 59, [Executive Secretariat] Briefing Books [Reports, and Minutes], box 317A, State Visit of President Scheel June 1975; Gray, ‘Commercial Liberties and Nuclear Anxieties: The German-American Feud over Brazil, 1975–1977’.
58. State Department cable 119267 to Embassy Moscow, ‘Discussion Paper for Nuclear Suppliers Meeting’, 21 May 1975, AAD.
59. Embassy London cable 9455 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Meeting June 18–19’, 19 June 1975, AAD.
60. ‘Discussions with Nuclear Suppliers’, n.d., attached to Thomas O. Enders to the Secretary, ‘Draft Letter to Sauvagnargues’, 14 June 1975, PPC, box 356, June 1–15, 1975; ‘Secretary's Principal's and Regional's Staff Meeting, Friday, June 13, 1975 8:00 a.m.’, Staff Meeting, box 7; Sonnenfeldt to the Secretary, ‘Activities Report’, 13 June 1975, RG 59, [Records of the] Counselor [(Helmut Sonnenfeldt)], box 8, Daily Activities Report 1975.
61. ‘Secretary's Principal's and Regional's Staff Meeting, Friday, June 13, 1975 8:00 a.m.’
62. See Embassy London cable 9455 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Meeting June 18–19’, 19 June 1975, AAD, and Howard Meyers to Members of the GAC, ‘Summary of Arms Control Developments Since Last GAC Meeting and Suggestions for Meeting of July 16–17, 2975’, 14 July 1975, FOIA release; State Department cable 150291 to Embassy Paris, ‘French Express Regret at Leaks on Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 25 June 1975, AAD.
63. ‘Status Summary of Nuclear Suppliers Conference and Relevant Bilateral Discussions’, attached to Meyers to Members of the GAC, 14 July 1975 (supra).
64. Ibid.; David Elliott and Jan M. Lodal, National Security Council, to Secretary Kissinger, ‘Instructions to the U.S. Delegations to the Nuclear Suppliers Conference and to the U.S./French Nuclear Talks’, 6 Sep. 1975, Counselor, box 4, France (HS and JK Only). Only the first page of this paper is in the file.
65. State Department cable 215360 to London Embassy, ‘Instructions to U.S. Delegation September 16–17 Multilateral Nuclear Exporter's Meetings and Associated Bilaterals’, 10 Sep. 1975, attached to George S. Springsteen to Brent Scowcroft, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines’, 22 Dec. 1975, 1975 P-Reel.
66. Winston Lord to the Deputy Secretary, ‘Institutionalizing the Results of the Nuclear Suppliers’ Conference’, 5 Aug. 1975, 1975 P-Reel.
67. Embassy Paris cable 23388 to State Department, ‘U.S.-French Consultations on Nuclear Suppliers Meeting’, 11 Sep. 1975, and Embassy London cable 14368 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference: Summary Report’, 17 Sep. 1975, both AAD; Vest to the Secretary, ‘September 16–17 Nuclear Suppliers’ Meeting’, 23 Sep. 1975, FOIA release.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid; Embassy London cable 14297 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers’ Conference: Summary Report on First Day’, 16 Sep. 1975; Embassy London cable 14368 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference: Summary Report’, 17 September 1975; Mission Vienna cable 8037 to State Department, ‘Canadian Views on Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 20 Sep. 1975, all AAD; ‘Trudeau Defends Nuclear Exports’, The Washington Post, 18 June 1975; memcon, ‘Visit of Secretary of State and Mrs. Kissinger to Canada; Luncheon at 24 Sussex Drive’, 15 Oct. 1975, 1975 P-Reel.
70. Mission Vienna cable 8037 to State Department, ‘Canadian Views on Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 20 Sep. 1975, AAD; Department of State Briefing Paper, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, Oct. 1975, Briefing Books, box 223, Secretary's Trip to Ottawa, 14–15 Oct. 1975.
71. Memcon, ‘Visit of Secretary of State and Mrs. Kissinger to Canada, Luncheon at 24 Sussex Drive’, 15 Oct. 1974, 1974 P-Reel.
72. London Embassy cable 15865 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers and John Thomson's Meeting in Paris’, 15 Oct. 1975 and State Department cable 251417 to Mission Vienna et al., ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference and British IAEA’, 22 Oct. 1975; State Department cable 255368 to Bonn Embassy et al., ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference and British’, 28 Oct. 1975, all in AAD.
73. London Embassy cable 15865 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers and John Thomson's Meeting in Paris’, 15 Oct. 1975 and State Department cable 251417 to U.S. Mission IAEA et al., ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference and British IAEA’, 22 Oct. 1975; State Department cable 255368 to Bonn Embassy et al., ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference and British’, 28 Oct. 1975, all in AAD.
74. George Vest to the Secretary, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference’, 30 Oct. 1976, attached to Vest to the Secretary, ‘Nuclear Suppliers: Status Report’, 27 Jan. 1976, Counselor, box 7, Nuclear Suppliers Conference.
75. Winston Lord and Robert H. Miller to Acting Secretary of State, ‘Your Meetings with the French and Canadian Ambassadors on Korean Reprocessing’, 4 December 1975, PPC, box 359, Dec 1–15, 1975; ‘S. Korea Cancels A-Plant’, The Washington Post, 30 Jan. 1976.
76. London Embassy cable 17009 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference – Multilateral Proceedings, November 4–5’, 6 Nov. 1975, AAD; George S. Springsteen to Brent Scowcroft, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines’, 31 Dec. 1975, 1975 P-Reel.
77. Transcript, Joan Rohfling et al., ‘The Future of the Nuclear Suppliers Group’, 29 March 2011, Carnegie International Nuclear Policy Conference (online).
78. Memcon, ‘Arms Control’, 13 Nov. 1975, DNSA.
79. Embassy London cable 17008 to State Department, ‘Nuclear Suppliers’ Conference: Next Steps’, 6 Nov. 1975 and State Department cable 303717 to Embassy Moscow, ‘Nuclear Suppliers’, 30 Dec. 1975, AAD; ‘Trigger List Referred to in Guidelines’, n.d., attached to George S. Springsteen to Brent Scowcroft, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines’, 31 Dec. 1975, 1975 P-Reel; State Department cable 278247 to Embassy Bonn et al., ‘UK Approach to Supplier Governments on Pakistan’, 1 Nov. 1978, State Department mandatory declassification review release.
80. London Embassy cables 17008 and 17014, ‘Nuclear Suppliers Conference: Next Steps’ and ‘Draft Note for Nuclear Suppliers Commitment’, 6 Nov. 1975, AAD; George S. Vest to the Secretary, ‘Nuclear Suppliers: Status Report’, 27 Jan. 1976.
81. ‘Talking Points – Suppliers Activities’, n.d., Briefing Books, box 233, Secretary's Testimony before Joint Committee on Atomic Energy.
82. Anthony, Ahlström, and Fedchenko, Reforming Nuclear Export Controls, 17; T. Strulak’, The Nuclear Suppliers Group’, The Nonproliferation Review (Fall 1993), 3–5; P. van Ham, Managing Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regimes in the 1990s: Power, Politics, and Policies (New York, 1994), 15–16; ‘United States-France Bilaterals’, n.d. [1980], FOIA release.
83. Anthony, Ahlström, and Fedchenko, Reforming Nuclear Export Controls, vii; M. Krepon, ‘Six Years Later [I and II],’ Arms Control Wonk [on-line], 27 and 30 June 2011. See also M. Hibbs, The Future of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (Washington, D.C., 2011).