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The land–sea interface is a complex social–ecological system characterized by natural ecological processes and human-induced changes. Holistic management of the shoreline is a critical element of an ecosystem-based approach to the land–sea interface in coastal zone management (CZM) programs. Anthropogenic alteration of shoreline environments has resulted in significant loss of sandy beach ecosystems and eroded the resilience of these systems to disturbance. We tested the efficacy of CZM programs in managing the land–sea interface under current and future challenges by comparing alternative approaches to shoreline management in two U.S. states (Hawai‘i and North Carolina). Our results show that explicit prohibition of shoreline armoring has been more effective in conserving dynamic coastal environments and communities by passing the risk associated with coastal development from the public trust to private landowners. Over the long-term, robust anti-armoring legislation will de-incentivize risky coastal development projects while preserving coastal environments and the ecological services they provide to society. Policy prescriptions for effective shoreline management and increased coastal resilience under persistent coastal erosion and future sea-level rise are proposed.
The authors thank Brian Szuster and Charles Fletcher with the University of Hawai‘i, Dolan N. Eversole with the University of Hawai‘i Sea Grant College Program, Spencer Rogers from North Carolina Sea Grant, Tom Jarrett, and the many coastal resource managers that aided us in developing this article. We also thank Kyle Tanaka for creating Figure 1. Any omissions or errors belong to the authors alone.
Notes
1. “Armoring” is defined here as the alteration of the natural shoreline by constructing, adding, or otherwise modifying the natural shoreline such that natural erosion, accretion, littoral sediment transport, or migration processes are altered in order to protect littoral property. Armoring (or “hardening”) is typically associated with the construction of seawalls, jetties, groins, levees, revetments, placement of rip-rap, or other human-created structures along shorelines or littoral property (sensu Fletcher et al., 1997) (see also “Structure” definition, ).