For a discussion of clan structures in Central Asia, see Collins (2006) Collins, K. 2006. Clan politics and regime transition in Central Asia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar].

In contrast, the structural unemployment in the rural areas and the economic gap between rural and urban areas is stressed by Patnaik (1995) Patnaik, A. 1995. Agriculture and rural out-migration in Central Asia, 1960–91. Europe-Asia Studies, 47(1): 147–169. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar].

Oral information from the State Committee for Migration of the Kyrgyz Republic in Moscow.

The estimates of illegal migrants in Russia differ between 1.5 million and more than 6 million (Ivakhniouk 2004 Ivakhniouk, I. 2004. Illegal migration: Russia. European Security, 13(1): 35–53. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]).

The standardized questionnaire comprised 30 questions, and the questioning took approximately 30 to 50 minutes. The main topics of the survey were direction, duration and reasons for migration, biographical, educational and economic background of the migrants and the households, networks, situation in the target region (employment, living conditions and salary), expectations and reality of migration, relations between migrants and home, and finally consequences of migration.

Information provided by the local administrations.

Information provided by the local administrations.

Information provided by the local administrations.

Such an explanation follows classical migration research theories, in which migration is seen as helping to equalize differences between regions in the supply of and demand for labour, and will lead to optimal resource allocation (Todaro 1969 Todaro, M. P. 1969. A model of labor migration and urban unemployment in less developed countries. The American Economic Review, 59(1): 138–148. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Borjas 1989 Borjas, G. J. 1989. Economic theory and international migration. International Migration Review, 23(3): 457–485. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Stark 1991 Stark, O. 1991. The migration of labor, Oxford: Blackwell.  [Google Scholar], Massey et al. 1993 Massey, D. 1993. Theories of international migration: a review and appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19: 431–466. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Taylor et al. 1996 Taylor, J. E. 1996. International migration and community development. Population Index, 62(3): 397–418. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]).

The theory of the dual labour market offers explanations why labour migrants are willing to accept bad working conditions, low wages and low prestige jobs which are avoided by labourers of the destination country (Piore 1979 Piore, M. J. 1979. Birds of passage: migrant labor in industrial societies, London: Cambridge University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]).

On the other hand, according to local Kyrgyz authorities, between 4000 and 5000 Uzbek citizens work mainly on a seasonal basis in Kyrgyzstan, such as cotton pickers in the Jalalabad region (Elebaeva 2004 Elebaeva, A. 2004. Labor migration in Kyrgyzstan. Central Asia and the Caucasus, 27(3): 78–86.  [Google Scholar], p. 80). The majority work illegally without labour contracts and are not covered by social and other benefits. Their daily wages amount to approximately US$1; in many cases they are not paid at all and are treated abominably.

Shuttle traders selling Chinese goods in Russian markets can earn up to US$1000 a month, hired sellers on average US$200–250, unskilled workers in construction up to US$100, skilled workers up to US$400, which is much lower than the average wages of legally employed workers (Elebaeva 2004 Elebaeva, A. 2004. Labor migration in Kyrgyzstan. Central Asia and the Caucasus, 27(3): 78–86.  [Google Scholar], p. 81).

Regarding problems and conditions of returned labour migrants in Kyrgyzstan, see Turgunbayev et al. (2007 Wilpert, C. 1992. “The use of social networks in Turkish migration to Germany”. In International migration systems: a global approach, Edited by: Kritz, M. M., Lim, L. L. and Zlotnik, H. 177–189. Oxford: Clarendon Press.  [Google Scholar]).

These facts perfectly fit into the world system theory that focuses on the structure of the world market and sees migration as a consequence of economic globalization processes; it further postulates that borders and protection against illegal immigrants have deliberate holes, since illegal immigrants are necessary as a cheap labour force (Hopkins and Wallerstein1982 Hopkins, T. K. and Wallerstein, I. 1982. World-systems analysis: theory and methodology, Beverly Hills: Sage.  [Google Scholar]).

The government of the Kyrgyz Republic and competent organizations undertake measures intended to improve the conditions of labour migrants from Kyrgyzstan in Russia and Kazakhstan. Consulates General were opened in Russian cities to monitor the residence and work situation of Kyrgyz labour migrants. However, most labour migrants are not informed about their rights (Dmitrienko and Kusnecova 2000 Dmitrienko, V. N. and Kusnecova, L. P. 2000. “Problemy ocenki i regulirovania processov trudovoi migracii v Kyrgyzskoi Respublike”. In Migracionnye processy v Kyrgyzstane na sovremennom etape: vneshniaia migracia Russkoiazychnogo naselenia Kyrgyzstana, problemy i posledstvia, Edited by: Kumskov, G. V. Bishkek: Kyrgyz-Russian Slavonic University.  [Google Scholar]).