1. Gretchen L. Hoffman, “How Are Cookbooks Classified in Libraries? An Examination of LCSH and LCC,” NASKO: North American Symposium on Knowledge Organization 4, no. 1 (2013): 2, https://doi.org/10.7152/nasko.v4i1.14650. First published between 1910 and 1914, Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) are widely used by United States (U.S.) libraries and libraries in English speaking countries to provide subject access to resources. LCSH translations are used in Turkey, Malaysia, and Latin America, while LCSH-derived subject headings are used in countries such as Portugal. LCSH is integrated into numerous bibliographic access tools (e.g., H.W. Wilson Company indexes). See Hope Olson, “Difference, Culture and Change: The Untapped Potential of LCSH,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 29, no. 1–2 (2000): 54, https://doi.org/10.1300/J104v29n01_04.

2. Steven A. Knowlton, “Three Decades Since Prejudices and Antipathies: A Study of Changes in the Library of Congress Subject Headings,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 40, no. 2 (2005): 123–145, https://doi.org/10.1300/J104v40n02_08.

3. Sanford Berman, Prejudices and Antipathies: A Tract on the LC Subject Heads Concerning People (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1971).

4. See, for example, Hope A. Olson, “Difference, Culture and Change: The Untapped Potential of LCSH,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 29, no. 1–2 (2000); Lois Olsrud and Jennalyn C. Tellman, “Difficulties of Subject Access for Information About Minority Groups,” The Acquisitions Librarian 5, no. 9 (1993); Karen A. Nuckolls, “Subject Access to Diversity Materials: The Library of Congress Subject Heading Shortfall,” Reference Librarian, (1994); Marielena Fina, “The Role of Subject Headings in Access to Information,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 17, no. 1–2 (1993); Steven A. Knowlton, “Three Decades Since Prejudices and Antipathies: A Study of Changes in the Library of Congress Subject Headings,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 40, no. 2 (2005); Matt Johnson, “Transgender Subject Access: History and Current Practice,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 48, no. 8 (2010).

5. Jeffrey Beall, “Ethnic Groups and Library of Congress Subject Headings,” Colorado Libraries 32, no. 4 (2006): 41.

6. Hoffman, 6.

7. Ibid.

8. Karen A. Nuckolls, “LC Subject Headings, FAST Headings, and Apps: Diversity Can Be Problematic In the 21st Century,” in Rethinking Technical Services, ed. Bradford Lee Eden (Scarecrow Press, 2015), 88–89.

9. Mukhtiar Kaur and Mercy P. Selvaratnam, “In Quest of a List of Malaysian Subject Headings,” Kekal Abadi 9, no. 3 (1990): 11.

10. Hope A. Olson and Rose Schlegl, “Bias in Subject Access Standards: A Content Analysis of the Critical Literature,” in Information Science Where Has It Been, Where Is It Going? Proceedings of Annual Conference, 27th (Sherbrooke, QC: Canadian Association for Information Science, 1999), 243–244, http://www.cais-acsi.ca/ojs/index.php/cais/article/viewFile/364/322.

11. Usha Bhasker, “Languages of India: Cataloging Issues,” in Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems, ed. Martin D. Joachim (New York: Haworth Press, 1993), 159–168.

12. Jos Gommans, “Continuity and Change in the Indian Ocean Basin,” in The Construction of a Global World, 1400–1800 CE, eds. Jerry H. Bentley, Sanjay Subrahmanyam, and Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks, vol. VI, The Cambridge World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 182–209.

13. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “East India, N.,” http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/59112?redirectedFrom=east+india& (accessed March 27, 2017).

14. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “East Indian, Adj. and N.,” http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/59113?redirectedFrom=east+indian& (accessed March 27, 2017).

15. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “East Indies, N.,” http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/59114#eid5931869 (accessed March 27, 2017).

16. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Indies, N.,” http://www.oed.com.proxy195.nclive.org/view/Entry/94445?redirectedFrom=indies& (accessed July 10, 2017).

17. Marianne O'Doherty, The Indies and the Medieval West: Thought, Report, Imagination (Turnhout: Brepols, 2013), 1.

18. Ibid., 15.

19. Ibid., 30–36. For example, Doherty refers to the mid-12th century work “Letter of Prester John” in which the author identifies himself as a ruler over pagan, Christian, and Jewish subjects in the “three Indies” with “Ulterior India” being that in which rests the body of the apostle Thomas.

20. Ibid., 303–304.

21. Dorothy M. Figueira, The Hermeneutics of Suspicion: Cross-Cultural Encounters with India (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 65.

22. Shankar Raman, Framing ‘India’: The Colonial Imaginary in Early Modern Culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 2.

23. Kate Teltscher, “The Floating Lexicon: Hobson-Jobson and the OED,” in Knowledge Production, Pedagogy, and Institutions in Colonial India, eds. Indra Sengupta and Daud Ali (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 42.

24. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical, and Discursive, ed. William Crooke, New ed. (London: John Murray, 1903), 434.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid., 435.

27. Raman, 3.

28. Marisa Elena Duarte and Miranda Belarde-Lewis, “Imagining: Creating Spaces for Indigenous Ontologies,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 53, no. 5–6 (2015): 677–702, https://doi.org/10.1080/01639374.2015.1018396.

29. Ibid., 680.

30. Ibid.

31. Ibid., 682.

32. Exceptions are Maldives and Brunei.

33. Robert D. Rodriguez, “Hulme's Concept of Literary Warrant,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 5, no. 1 (1984), 17–26.

34. William Mischo, “Library of Congress Subject Headings: A Review of the Problems and Prospects for Improved Subject Access,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 1, no. 2/3 (1982): 107.

35. Caimei Lu, Jung-ran Park, and Xiaohua Hu, “User Tags versus Expert-assigned Subject Terms: A Comparison of LibraryThing Tags and Library of Congress Subject Headings,” Journal of Information Science 36 (2010):775–776, http:/dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165551510386173.

36. Ibid., 766.

37. Carolyn O. Frost, “Title Words as Entry Vocabulary to LCSH,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 10, no. 1–2 (1989): 165–179, https://doi.org/10.1300/j104v10n01_11.

38. Junli Diao and Haiyun Cao, “Chronology in Cataloging Chinese Archaeological Reports: An Investigation of Cultural Bias in the Library of Congress Classification,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 54, no. 4 (2016): 252, https://doi.org/10.1080/01639374.2016.1150931.

39. Elaine Svenonius, “Design of Controlled Vocabularies,” in Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, ed. Miriam A. Drake, 2nd ed., vol. 3 (New York: Marcel Dekker, 2003), 824.

40. Heidi Lee Hoerman and Kevin A. Furniss, “Turning Practice into Principles: A Comparison of the IFLA Principles Underlying Subject Heading Languages (SHLs) and the Principles Underlying the Library of Congress Subject Headings System,” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 29, no. 1–2 (2000): 31–52, https://doi.org/10.1300/J104v29n01_03.

41. Hope Olson has critiqued Cutter's envisioning of a community of library users having a singular perspective and a singular way of seeking information. See Olson, "Difference, Culture and Change,” 56.

42. Rodriguez, 24.

43. Clare Beghtol, “A Proposed Ethical Warrant for Global Knowledge Representation and Organization Systems,” Journal of Documentation 58, no. 5 (2002): 507–532, https://doi.org/10.1108/00220410210441.

44. Hope Olson notes that, in establishing the LC subject heading “Gays–Nazi persecution,” LC consulted its own database, online sources, and The Washington Blade, a gay newspaper. On the other hand, Olson points out, LC has failed to create a heading for “unpaid” work” in spite of having cataloged several works on this topic. See Olson, “Difference, Culture and Change,” 56–58. Note: When Olson was writing this article in 2000, the heading “unpaid work” did not exist. The subject heading “unpaid labor” was created in 2015; “unpaid work” is a cross-reference for this heading.

45. For example, see titles such as A narrative of the military operations, on the Coromandel coast….(1789); Parliamentary debates on the East-Indians' petition….(1830); Alphabetical list of Europeans and East Indians in the Company's service on 30th June 1880 (1880); The problem of the East Indians in Kenya Colony and protectorate (1928); Immigration and status of British East Indians in Canada, a problem in imperial relations (1936); History of the East Indians in British Guiana, 1838–1938 (1947).

46. Svenonius, “Design of Controlled Vocabularies.”

47. According to Olson, literary warrant has served to strengthen the status of LCSH as a device of cultural authority in that headings are established when first encountered in a work being cataloged and consequently topics covered are those represented in the published materials received and cataloged by LC. At the same time, she does consider the possibility of literary warrant supporting a diversity of voices through the multitude of sources that can be consulted in the establishment of a heading. Olson, “Difference, Culture and Change,” 56–57.

48. Peter J. Rolla, “User Tags versus Subject Headings: Can User-Supplied Data Improve Subject Access to Library Collections?” Library Resources & Technical Services 53, no. 3 (2009): 174–184, https://journals.ala.org/index.php/lrts/article/view/5281/6427.

49. Louise F. Spiteri, “Social Discovery Tools: Extending the Principle of User Convenience,” Journal of Documentation 68, no. 2 (2012): 215, https://doi.org/10.1108/00220411211209195.

50. Henk Voorbij, “The Value of LibraryThing Tags for Academic Libraries,” Online Information Review 36, no. 2 (2012): 196–217, https://doi.org/10.1108/14684521211229039.

51. Melissa Adler, “Transcending Library Catalogs: A Comparative Study of Controlled Terms in Library of Congress Subject Headings and User-Generated Tags in LibraryThing for Transgender Books,” Journal of Web Librarianship 3, no. 3 (2009): 315, https://doi.org/10.1080/19322900903341099.

52. Ibid., 310.

53. Google's Ngram Viewer allows users to search n-grams of words in the Google books dataset with 1-gram being a term of characters unseparated by a space including words in small letters, all capital letters, decimal numbers, and even typos. The Ngram viewer searches the corpus of digitized Google books printed between 1500 and 2008. Google Books Ngram Viewer, accessed April 20, 2017, https://books.google.com/ngrams/info.

54. There have been multiple critics of the Ngram viewer, for example, it doesn't study words in context, is not equivalent to a close reading of sources, or looks only at published sources and that too those collected by libraries whose holdings are covered by the Google Books project. See for example, Martin Ravallion, “The Two Poverty Enlightenments: Historical Insights from Digitized Books Spanning Three Centuries,” Poverty & Public Policy 3, no. 2 (2011): 4–5, https://doi.org/10.2202/1944–2858.1173.

55. Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer, eds., Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), vii.

56. The World Factbook (2017), accessed April 20, 2017, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html.

57. Hope A. Olson, “The Power to Name: Representation in Library Catalogs,” Signs 26, no. 3 (2001): 640, https://doi.org/ 10.1086/495624.

58. Vinay Lal, The Other Indians: A Political and Cultural History of South Asians in America (Los Angeles: Asian American Studies Center Press, University of California, 2008).

59. Ibid.

60. Prema Kurien, “Redefining Americanness by Reformulating Hinduism: Indian Americans Challenge American Academia,” in Race, Nation, and Empire in American History, ed. James T. Campbell, Pratt Guterl, and Robert G. Lee (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 325.

61. Olson, "Difference, Culture and Change.”

62. Ibid., 68. Olson does not clarify the dates for the last two annual editions in her article. However, since the article itself was written in 1999, as mentioned by Alva Stone in her special guest editorial for this issue of the Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, the author assumes the dates for the last two annual editions that Olson is referring to as being those published in the late 1990s. In general, as noted in the Library of Congress Subject Headings 22nd Edition (Volume 1), the creation of subject headings is a continuous process with 6,000–8,000 headings, including headings with subdivisions, being added to LCSH each year. For example, LCSH 22 published in 1999 contained approximately 6,000 more authority records as compared to LCSH 21 published the year before. See Library of Congress. Library of Congress Subject Headings. 22nd ed. Vol. I. A-C. Washington D.C.: Library of Congress, Cataloging Distribution Service, 1999. LCSH continues to grow significantly each year. As per the current edition of LCSH (LCSH 39), containing headings established by LC through April 2017, approximately 5,000 new headings, including headings with subdivisions, are added to LCSH each year.

63. Knowlton, 128.

64. For more on changed LC subject headings, see Knowlton, “Three Decades”; Nuckolls, “Subject Access to Diversity Materials”; and Johnson, “Transgender Subject Access.” Johnson's article on transgender subjects eloquently describes the importance of having separate headings for “Transgendered people” and “Transsexuals” as the two are not congruent.

65. Janis L. Young, “Enhancing Access to Resources with LC's Faceted Vocabularies,” paper presented at American Library Association Midwinter Meeting, Atlanta, GA, January 2017.

66. The best practices for the use of LCDGT are still being developed and new proposals for this vocabulary are being accepted from the library community. As of April 2017, the LCDGT includes 1090 approved terms. See Policy and Standards Division, Library of Congress, “Introduction to Library of Congress Demographic Group Terms,” https://www.loc.gov/aba/publications/FreeLCDGT/2017%20LCDGT%20intro.pdf(accessed April 28, 2017).

67. Ibid.

68. Edward W. Said, “Representing the Colonized: Anthropology's Interlocutors,” Critical Inquiry 15, no. 2 (Winter 1989): 205–225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343582.

69. Beall, 44.

70. Olson and Schlegl, "Bias in Subject Access Standards.”