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The recent spotlight on Communist China's relations with African nations is not the first time it has occurred, nor will it be the last. In the 1960s, similar commentators and supposed scholars on the subject brought attention to the “Red Peril” or “Red Invasion” descending onto Africa. The past obsession was with Communist expansionism; the current one, with access to raw materials and natural resources. What past and current assessments fail to account for fully, however, is Chinese grand strategy—and one grand strategic instrument, in particular, called political warfare. Long ago discarded and ignored by the Western powers, political warfare, rightly understood, is a nonviolent instrument of grand strategy involving coordinated activities that have tangible effects on intended targets. China on the African continent used this assistance of a different kind in the past and continues to use it today. This historical case study of Chinese political warfare in Ghana sheds light on China's past operations in Africa, which has direct implications for its current policies and potential responses to them.
Notes
1. Audra Ang, “China Defends Dealings With Africa”, Washington Post, October 31, 2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/31/AR2006103100666.html; accessed November 1, 2006.
2. But when Beijing's leaders speak, they reveal the intent. For example, President Hu Jintao said at the opening of the Forum, “Building strong ties between China and Africa will not only promote development on each side, but also help cement unity and cooperation among developing countries and contribute to establishing a just and equitable new international political and international order”. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Africa: China to Double Aid to Africa”, Integrated Regional Information Network Africa, November 4, 2006, http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=56251&SelectRegion=East_Africa,%20Southern_Africa,%20West_Africa&SelectCountry=AFRICA; accessed November 14, 2006.
3. For a detailed historical examination, see Donovan C. Chau, Grand Strategy into Africa: Communist China's Use of Political Warfare, 1955–1976, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Reading (United Kingdom), 2005.
4. For a lengthier description of political warfare's origins, see Donovan C. Chau, “Political Warfare—An Essential Instrument of U.S. Grand Strategy Today”, Comparative Strategy, vol. 25, no. 2 (April–June 2006): 109–120.
5. Policy Planning Staff Memorandum, https://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/intel/260_269.html, accessed October 17, 2005.
6. For examples of its misuses and mischaracterizations, again see Chau, “Political Warfare—An Essential Instrument of U.S. Grand Strategy Today”, especially pp. 110–114.
7. Interrelated in the sense that activities are not performed in isolation; rather, there is some rhyme and reason to them. Tangible in the sense embodied in the U.S. Marine Corps' Stability and Support Operations Steps: “Start the feeding. Stop the bleeding. Fix the feelings”. Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Small Wars (Draft), Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, 2004, p. 47. The basic needs of human beings—water, food, health, and safety—are primary targets of political warfare activities.
8. “China and the World: Cultural News”, Peking Review, vol. I, no. 3 (March 18, 1958): 20.
9. The troupe's visit was no doubt the result of efforts by the Commission on Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries. Two years later, in January 1960, it was learned that a deputy director of the Commission sponsored a similar PRC acrobatic group in Khartoum, Sudan. Ganda (pseudonym), “Report on Maoist Subversion in Africa”, ABC (Madrid), August 22, 1971, p. 2. Article in Translations on Africa, no. 1088, Joint Publication Research Service (54615), December 3, 1971, pp. 1–33.
10. “China and the World: Cultural News”, Peking Review, vol. I, no. 8 (April 22, 1958), p. 22.
11. David Anderson, “Small Countries Fear Taiwan War”, New York Times, September 25, 1958, p. 6.
12. Alaba Ogunsanwo, China's Policy in Africa 1958–71 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1974), p. 54.
13. Peking will be used, at times interchangeably, as the historic place name for Beijing.
14. “China and the World: Briefs”, Peking Review, vol. II, no. 10 (March 10, 1959): 18.
15. “China and the World: Ghana's Anniversary Greeted”, Peking Review, vol. III, no. 11 (March 15, 1960): 25.
16. Nkrumah's Subversion in Africa: Documentary Evidence of Nkrumah's Interference in the Affairs of Other African States (Accra-Tema: Ghana Ministry of Information, November 1966), p. 3.
17. Note that Nkrumah's arrogance led to the ill treatment and alienation of African nationalists in Ghana. Ibid.
18. W. Scott Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy 1957–1966 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. xxiii.
19. This would be a continuing theme throughout Nkrumah's tenure because his desires were not matched with sufficient resources.
20. “Chinese Government Leaders Greet New African States”, Peking Review, vol. III, no. 27 (July 5, 1960): 11.
21. “Ghana, China Exchange Envoys”, Washington Post Times Herald, July 6, 1960, A1. The PRC and the Republic of Ghana agreed to establish diplomatic relations and exchange ambassadorial diplomatic representatives. This was made public in a joint communiqué on July 5, 1960. President Nkrumah also accepted Chairman Liu Shao-chi's invitation to visit the PRC. “China and the World: China-Ghana Diplomatic Ties”, Peking Review, vol. III, no. 28 (July 12, 1960): 26.
22. He arrived in Accra on August 25, 1960. “Ghana Signs Soviet Pact”, New York Times, August 27, 1960, p. 2. Thompson described Ambassador Huang: “By all accounts Huang Hua was exceedingly shrewd. A senior party official, he had headed the Western Europe and Africa divisions of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Peking before being accredited to Accra in 1960”. Thompson, Ghanas Foreign Policy, p. 297.
23. “Red China Envoy in Ghana”, New York Times, September 6, 1960, p. 20.
24. “China and the World: First Chinese Ambassador to Ghana”, Peking Review, vol. III, no. 37 (September 14, 1960): 41.
25. “Red China Replaces Ambassador to Cairo”, Washington Post Times Herald, January 21, 1966, A17.
26. “Reds to Open Embassy”, Washington Post Times Herald, August 5, 1960, A11.
27. Dana Adams Schmidt, “Nkrumah Speaks”, New York Times, September 24, 1960, p. 1.
28. “Ghana Names Peiping Envoy”, New York Times, October 23, 1960, p. 24.
29. Ernest W. Lefever, Spear and Scepter: Army, Police, and Politics in Tropical Africa (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1970), p. 54. Note that earlier in the year “five officials” joined two PRC diplomats in the newly created embassy in Accra.
30. Feng Chih-tan, a member of a delegation of the Chinese-African People's Friendship Association that visited West Africa, first wrote about it in August 1961. Feng Chih-tan, “From Dark Night to Dawn”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 34 (August 25, 1961): 7–9.
31. Visiting Guinea, Mali, and Ghana should not have come as a surprise.
32. Feng Chih-tan, Glimpses of West Africa (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1963), pp. 37–39.
33. Ibid., p. 41.
34. “Kenyan Backs Red Aid”, New York Times, June 28, 1961, p. 6.
35. Through possibly political warfare, if the Ghanaian students were “studying” guerrilla warfare.
36. “China and the World: Ghanaian National Day”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 28 (July 14, 1961): 22.
37. Ibid.
38. Nkrumah arrived in Communist China via Albania and the Soviet Union. “Nkrumah Arrives in Soviet Capital”, Washington Post Times Herald, 13 August 1961, A1.
39. The PRC repeatedly insisted on the latter for political warfare purposes. Reference was also made to a recent CAPFA visit to Ghana. “Rousing Welcoming for President Nkrumah”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 3 (August 18, 1961): 5–6.
40. “New Stage in Sino-Ghanaian Relations”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 34 (August 25, 1961): 5, and “Peiping and Ghana Set Up Closer Ties”, New York Times, August 19, 1961, p. 6.
41. The credit amounted to nearly US $20 million.
42. “China Lends Ghana Nearly 20 Million”, New York Times, August 22, 1961, p. 13.
43. In other words, the PRC would supply Ghana technical assistance and complete sets of “equipment, machinery and materials, technical and other goods”. Ibid.
44. Ogunsanwo, China's Policy in Africa, p. 91.
45. “Joint Communique”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 34 (August 25, 1961): 5–6.
46. Clare McDermott, “China, Ghana Sign Amity, Trade Pacts”, Washington Post Times Herald, August 19, 1961, A9. The Sino-Ghanaian Treaty of Friendship was signed by Chou En-lai and Kwame Nkrumah on August 18, 1961 and remained in force for ten years. “Nkrumah in Peiping”, New York Times, August 15, 1961, p. 2, and “Treaty of Friendship”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 34 (August 25, 1961): 7.
47. “China and the World: China and Africa”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 38 (September 22, 1961): 22 [Emphasis added].
48. “China and the World: Chinese Exhibition in Accra”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 33 (August 18, 1961): 23.
49. “China and the World: Ghana Likes Chinese Exhibition”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 38 (September 22, 1961): 22.
50. “China and the World: Between China and Ghana”, Peking Review, vol. IV, no. 45 (November 10, 1961): 19.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. “China and the World: Chinese-African Friendship”, Peking Review, vol. V, no. 3 (January 19, 1962): 23.
54. “China and the World: Briefs”, Peking Review, vol. V, no. 14 (April 6, 1962): 21.
55. “China and World: Sports”, Peking Review, vol. V, no. 26 (June 29, 1962): 21.
56. Note Guinea, Mali, and Ghana were visited.
57. “Ghana, China Sign Economic Accord”, Washington Post Times Herald, October 20, 1962, A14.
58. “China and the World: Sino-Ghanaian Co-operation Protocol”, Peking Review, vol. V, no. 43 (October 26, 1962): 23.
59. Cited from Jeune Afrique (Tunis), April 15 and 21, 1962 in W. A. C. Adie, “Chinese Policy towards Africa”, in The Soviet Bloc, China and Africa, eds. Sven Hamrell and Carl Gösta Widstrand (Uppsala: The Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1968), p. 58.
60. Thomas P. Ofcansky, “National Security”, in Ghana: A Country Study, ed. LaVerle Berry (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1995), p. 288.
61. It is notable that one individual could perform so much in a country like Ghana.
62. “China and the World: Ghanaian Goodwill Delegation”, Peking Review, vol. VI, no. 4 (January 25, 1963): 19.
63. “New in Brief”, Peking Review, vol. VI, no. 10–11 (March 15, 1963): 79.
64. “Guineans Leave China”, Washington Post Times Herald, June 19, 1963, A17.
65. “The Week: Sino-Ghanaian Friendship”, Peking Review, vol. VI, no. 34 (August 23, 1963): 4.
66. “Text of Joint Statement of Chinese and Ghanaian Trade Unions”, Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 3091 (October 30, 1963): 31. Translated by the American Consulate General in Hong Kong, and originally published in New China News Agency, October 27, 1963.
67. “Round the World: Africa: Militant Journalism”, Peking Review, vol. VI, no. 47 (November 22, 1963): 25.
68. “Chairman Mao Tse-tung's Message to President Nkrumah”, Peking Review, vol. VII, no. 3 (January 17, 1964): 4.
69. “Chou Is Welcomed On Visit to Ghana”, New York Times, January 12, 1964, p. 21.
70. On January 2, a constable assigned to the presidential guard fired five shots at President Nkrumah. Lloyd Garrison, “Ghana Punishes Security Police”, New York Times, January 18, 1964, p. 8. This assassination attempt, according to Thompson, “heightened [Nkrumah's] distress and his determination to reconstruct Ghana along Socialist lines”. Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy, p. 293.
71. Lloyd Garrison, “Nkrumah Praises Chou As a Leader”, New York Times, January 15, 1964, p. 7.
72. Lloyd Garrison, “Chou Greeted Unofficially by Ghana”, New York Times, January 13, 1964, p. 4.
73. Garrison, “Nkrumah Praises Chou As a Leader”, p. 7. He also proclaimed, “the surest road to the welfare and happiness of the people lies in Socialism”. “Nkrumah Continuing His Drive For a One-Party Socialist State”, New York Times, January 20, 1964, p. 64.
74. “Mao Sends a Message”, New York Times, January 13, 1964, p. 4. Notably, Chou's tour included Algeria as well as the non-African side trip to Albania.
75. “Ghana Joins Chou in Plea For Talks”, New York Times, January 17, 1964, p. 2.
76. Philip Snow, The Star Raft: China's Encounter with Africa (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), p. 94. Snow referenced an interview with Yaw Turkson, a former Ghanaian diplomat.
77. Cited from Ghana Radio, February 13, 1964 in Ogunsanwo, China's Policy in Africa p. 144.
78. Notably, PLA soldiers were known for being farmers as well, so the possibility of sending agricultural specialists as a cover should not, if however remote, be discounted.
79. Max Frankel, “U.S. Aides Unconvinced Pro-Reds Run Zanzibar”, New York Times, January 24, 1964, p. 1.
80. “Round the World: Ghana Hits Back: U.S. Imperialism Exposed”, Peking Review, vol. VII, no. 7 (February 14, 1964): 26.
81. “Round the World: Zanzibar: On Guard Against Intervention”, Peking Review, vol. VII, no. 7 (February 14, 1964): 28.
82. Peter Braestrup, “Algerians Decry Criticism By U.S”., New York Times, April 3, 1964, p. 6.
83. “Apartheid Must Go”, Peking Review, vol. VII, no. 16 (April 17, 1964): 11–12.
84. “The Week: Ghana's National Day”, Peking Review, vol. VII, no. 28 (July 10, 1964): 4.
85. “Ghana to Get Red China Loan”, New York Times, July 16, 1964, p. 9.
86. Leo Tansky, “China's Foreign Aid: The Record”, Current Scene, vol. X, no. 9 (September 1972): 10, Table IV.
87. “The Week: Soong Ching Ling With Algerian Children”, Peking Review, vol. VII, no. 35 (August 28, 1964): 4.
88. Ofcansky, Ghana: A Country Study, p. 288.
89. Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy, p. 360.
90. Ibid.
91. The director of the Bureau of African Affairs, A. K. Barden, had to endure “humiliation” for having to ask the Algerians for assistance. Ibid.
92. Ofcansky, Ghana: A Country Study, p. 288; Ogunsanwo, China's Policy in Africa, p. 147; and Wei Liang-Tsai, Peking versus Taipei in Africa, 1960–1978 (Taipei: Asia and World Institute, 1982), p. 118. The instructors made several initial recommendations for improvement. Nkrumah's Subversion in Africa: Documentary Evidence of Nkrumah's Interference in the Affairs of Other African States, p. 8. Coincidentally (or not) Half-Assini was the birthplace of Nkrumah. Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy, p. 148.
93. Ofcansky, Ghana: A Country Study, p. 288.
94. Ogunsanwo, China's Policy in Africa, p. 147.
95. “Communist Chinese Propaganda and Africa”, Afrique Nouvelle (Dakar), November 6–12, 1969, p. 9. Article found in Translations on Africa, no. 840, Joint Publication Research Service (49369), December 3, 1969, pp. 1–29.
96. Ogunsanwo, China's Policy in Africa, p. 172.
97. Ibid., p. 172–73.
98. “Ghana Adds Backing for Peking”, New York Times, December 11, 1964, p. 5.
99. Nkrumah's Subversion in Africa: Documentary Evidence of Nkrumah's Interference in the Affairs of Other African States, p. 18, and Wei Liang-Tsai, p. 119.
100. The PRC was in sole charge of the camp in Obenemasi. Wei Liang-Tsai, Peking versus Taipei, p. 119, footnote 40. The CIA reported that eight specialists in guerrilla warfare and sabotage arrived in Accra on December 30, 1964. Central Intelligence Agency, Chinese Communist Activities in Africa, Memorandum, April 30, 1965, p. 7. Memorandum found in CIA Research Reports Africa, 1946–1976 (Frederick, MD: University Publications of America, 1982).
101. Nkrumah's Subversion in Africa: Documentary Evidence of Nkrumah's Interference in the Affairs of Other African States, p. 18.
102. Regarding Niger, see previous paragraph.
103. Africans were from Nigeria, Benin, Ivory Coast, Algeria, Zanzibar, South Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea, Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), and Congo (Kinshasa). A guerrilla warfare course in the PRC that lasted from October 7, 1964 until February 13, 1965 was described by one of the participants from Ghana as “a 90-day course in theory and practice … arduous and intensive”. Nkrumah's Subversion in Africa: Documentary Evidence of Nkrumah's Interference in the Affairs of Other African States, p. 39.
104. Based on the available data, he was true on all accounts.
105. “Peking Assures Ghana”, Washington Post Times Herald, May 4, 1965, p. 10.
106. “Peking Accused in Subversion”, Washington Post Times Herald, March 14, 1965, A16.
107. “African Assails China's Actions”, Washington Post Times Herald, August 5, 1965, A25.
108. Central Intelligence Agency, p. 7.
109. Ofcansky, Ghana: A Country Study, p. 289.
110. Central Intelligence Agency, p. 7. “At least part of this shipment may be intended for the Congolese rebels”.
111. “The Week: Ghana's National Day”, Peking Review, vol. VIII, no. 11 (March 12, 1965): 5.
112. Ibid.
113. Tad Szulc, “Peking Steps Up Drive for Allies”, New York Times, April 1, 1965, p. 3. French Congo was also mentioned as a stop of the NPC delegation.
114. Ogunsanwo, China's Policy in Africa, p. 128.
115. “Peking Assures Ghana”, C4.
116. Wei Liang-Tsai, Peking versus Taipei, p. 120. PRC attention on Niger was notable. See above for accusations of PRC subversion from the President of Niger.
117. Ogunsanwo, China's Policy in Africa, p. 128.
118. Liu Ning-i, “Report on Visit to Five African Countries”, Peking Review, vol. VIII, no. 21 (May 21, 1965): 20.
119. Ibid.: 22.
120. Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy, p. 401.
121. It was retroactive to September 30, 1964, when the PRC first dispatched an advisory team in country. Wei Liang-Tsai, Peking versus Taipei, p. 119.
122. Nkrumah's Subversion in Africa: Documentary Evidence of Nkrumah's Interference in the Affairs of Other African States, p. 3.
123. The annual cost of the Centre's activities was: £50,890 in 1959; £100,000 in 1963; and $127,000 in 1964. Ibid., p. 4.
124. Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy, p. 398. In December 1965, Nkrumah announced his intention to set up a People's Militia. Nkrumah's Subversion in Africa: Documentary Evidence of Nkrumah's Interference in the Affairs of Other African States, p. 47. The PRC had on multiple occasions recommended to Nkrumah to establish a militia.
125. Geographically, Equatorial Guinea is across the Gulf of Guinea from Ghana.
126. “Round the World: Africa: Spark of Armed Revolt”, Peking Review, vol. IX, no. 9 (February 25, 1966): 29.
127. Edward Feit, “Military Coups and Political Development: Some Lessons from Ghana and Nigeria”, World Politics 20, no. 2 (January 1968): 180.
128. “Ankrah Calls Nkrumah Africa's No. 1 Tyrant”, Washington Post Times Herald, March 1, 1966, A10. Kumasi was the traditional capital of the Asante, who were known to be “unruly” in the early days of Gold Coast independence.
129. Lloyd Garrison, “Coup in Ghana: Elaborately Organized Upheaval”, New York Times, March 5, 1966, p. 2.
130. Feit, “Military Coups”,: 192.
131. Lefever, Spear and Scepter, p. 29.
132. Nkrumah's Subversion in Africa: Documentary Evidence of Nkrumah's Interference in the Affairs of Other African States, pp. 42, 47.
133. Ibid., p. 48.
134. Central Intelligence Agency, China Plans to Restore Nkrumah to Power in Ghana, Intelligence Information Cable, March 7, 1966, p. 1. Cable found in CIA Research Reports Africa, 1946–1976 (Frederick, MD: University Publications of America, 1982).
135. Ibid.
136. “Africa's Revolutionary Tide Cannot Be Stemmed”, Peking Review, vol. 9, no. 11 (March 11, 1966): 9.
137. “Protests to Ghanaian Authorities”, Peking Review, vol. 9, no. 11 (March 11, 1966): 7.
138. Sidney Taylor, “Ghana Says Nkrumah, Peking Plot”, Washington Post Times Herald, April 7, 1966, A22.
139. Ofcansky, Ghana: A Country Study, p. 289.
140. “Peking Charges Beating”, New York Times, March 5, 1966, p. 2.
141. “China Strongly Protests Against Worsening of Sino-Ghanaian Relations by Ghanaian Authorities”, Peking Review, vol. 9, no. 13 (March 25, 1966): 8–9.
142. Snow, The Star Raft, p. 103. Once again, Snow referenced an interview with former Ghanaian diplomat Yurkson.
143. According to a provision in the Guinean Constitution, all Africans who were “instruments of the African revolution” became citizens of Guinea. “Nkrumah's Status Explained”, New York Times, March 5, 1966, p. 2.
144. Ibid.
145. Drew Middleton, “Ivory Coast Head Calls China Peril”, New York Times, April 10, 1966, p. 17.
146. Notably, Nkrumah and Houphouet-Boigny had met face to face in 1957, charting different paths to independence. Houphouet-Boigny sought close association with France prior to and after Ivory Coast gained independence in 1960; clearly, Nkrumah sought the opposite with Britain. Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy, pp. 12–13.
147. Middleton, “Ivory Coast”, p. 17.
148. “Ghana Accuses Chinese of Arming Foes in Guinea”, New York Times, April 7, 1966, p. 5.
149. “Resolution on the Ghana Coup”, Peking Review, vol. 9, no. 29 (July 15, 1966): 10.
150. “Chairman Mao Receives Delegates and Observers to Afro-Asian Writers' Emergency Meeting”, Peking Review, vol. 9, no. 30 (July 22, 1966): 3.
151. “Ghana Acts to Revise Accords With Reds”, Washington Post Times Herald, September 7, 1966, D5.
152. “The Week: Protest Against Against Ghanaian Authorities' Anti-Chinese Provocations”, Peking Review, vol. 9, no. 41 (October 7, 1966): 38.
153. “The Week: Protest Against Ghanaian Authorities' Unilateral Suspension of Relations Between China and Ghana”, Peking Review, vol. 9, no. 45 (November 4, 1966): 5.
154. “Peking Ending Ghana Ties”, New York Times, October 30, 1966, p. 4. A PRC note also said an aide memoir dated October 20, from the Ghanaian Ministry of Foreign Affairs had informed the Chinese Embassy that Ghana was suspending relations between the two countries. “Peking Starts Withdrawing Embassy Force from Ghana”, Washington Post Times Herald, October 30, 1966, A24.
155. According to news reports cited in Wei Liang-Tsai, Peking versus Taipei, p. 121.
156. Central Intelligence Agency, Drawings on Communist Economic Aid Extended to Less Developed Countries, 1954–1967, May 1, 1968, p. 1.
157. Central Intelligence Agency, Unclassified Table on Communist Economic Credits and Grants Extended to Less Developed Countries of the Free World, 1954–1970 and Years 1969 and 1970, Memorandum for the Department of State, March 4, 1971, p. 1.
158. Frank Ching, “Nationalist China Is Winning New Friends in Africa”, New York Times, December 25, 1968, p. 17.
159. Notwithstanding the brief period of quiet for the PRC after Nkrumah was dethroned in and after 1966. Donald W. Klein, “Peking's Diplomats in Africa”, Current Scene, vol. II, no. 36 (July 1, 1964): 5.
160. Wei Liang-Tsai, Peking versus Taipei, p. 111. He included Guinea as well.
161. Russell Howe, “Red China Doing Poorly With Africans, Latins”, Washington Post Times Herald, June 23, 1963, E1.
162. Thompson, Ghana's Foreign Policy, p. 432.
163. “The Week: Resumption of Diplomatic Relations Between China and Ghana”, Peking Review, vol. 15, no. 9 (March 3, 1972): 3.
164. “Ministry of Defense”, Welcome to the Republic of Ghana, no date, http://www.ghana.gov.gh/governing/ministries/governance/defence.php; accessed November 3, 2006.
165. “Ghana, China Sign Agreements To Boost Economic Cooperation”, Ghana News Agency, June 19, 2006, http://shoutghana.com/news/read.asp?contentid=8966, accessed November 14, 2006.
166. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, “Ghana: Bilateral Relations”, October 12, 2003, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/fzs/gjlb/2999/default.htm, accessed November 3, 2006.